シャドーイング練習: Cohesion 3 - Substitution - 動画で英語スピーキングを学ぶ

Hello, everyone.

I want to talk about substitution today first by reminding you of where we were when I last talked to you.

We have language.

Language is divided into texts, right?

Newspaper articles, restaurant menus, poems, and so on.

We know a text is a text because the different parts of the text, the different clauses, join together cohesively, right?

They stick together in various ways you know about reference right

that reference is one of the cohesive properties of language

that there are words like them and she and we and

so on that refer to other parts of the text

that presuppose that you can find what they mean in other places in the text

and you know that reference included personal demonstrative and comparative reference right

if you wanted to make the org chart go down further substitution is another kind of cohesive relation uh

so it fits in like this uh it's different it has

many things in common with reference you can still use words like anaphoric cataphoric presupposition

and so on but it has enough differences

that it's a separate category of cohesive relation by the time

that you're finish this series of lectures

and seminars you will know about five types of cohesive relations

so where it says cohesion there there'll be five coming down

right the second one today is substitution a substitute is a counter

that is used in place of the particular item that's probably not very helpful uh that's fine

because i'm going to explain in more detail what that means So we've got examples here.

My axe is too blunt.

I must get a sharper one.

You think Joan already knows.

I think everybody does.

What are the substitutes?

You might want to pause and think about that in the second sentence of A and in the second sentence of B,

there's a word that substitutes for a word in the first sentence, right?

Which word is it that you only know what that word means by looking back at the first sentence?

And now that you, sorry I went too quickly, we've got one which is acts and does which is knows, right you can see how

that works uh my axe is too blunt i must get a sharper axe okay

so you could have said

that you could say my axe is too blunt i must

get a sharper axe right that's possible instead here you said

max is too blunt i must get a sharper one now

what's going on it says the substitute has the same structural

function as the original structural here means grammar grammar means nouns

and verbs what is axe my axe axe is a noun

right i must get a sharper one here one is a

noun just like acts uh we could also do it with

verbs right you think joan already knows knows is a verb

i think everybody knows are you sorry i think everybody does

but you know you're again like with a where you could have said acts

but you said one in b you could have said knows

but you said does uh and we'll look at how

that works in more detail but just for now you can see that

so these are substitutes right where one substitutes for acts does

substitutes for nose that's all for now right one uh

and acts are both nouns does and nose are both verbs right

so we're looking for words like that uh be they nouns

or be they verbs where you've used a different word

but it means almost the same thing not the same thing

but almost the same thing we'll see why in minute right

uh we can also do it with clauses right here think of

so has barbara left i think

so what are you saying here you're saying has barbara left i think barbara has left

so you can have uh a no noun a verb

or a clause right uh those are listed as being nominal

substitution verbal substitution clausal substitution it's written down soon right Nominal is N -O -M -I -N -A -L,

nominal for noun, verbal for verb, clausal for clauses, right?

Like reference substitution makes links, cohesive links between parts of the text, right?

Like with reference, it's usually endophoric.

It's usually in the text, right?

Like in those examples I gave, how did you know what acts?

How did you know what does?

How did you know what

so meant? you looked back in the text possibly it can be exophoric not

so much but it's possible you know if someone's holding a big fish

and uh you look and say wow

and they might say ah you should have seen the one

that got away and now you know the other one you say oh the fish right

so you'd be able to figure it out from the context.

Remember, exophoric means looking at the context.

You'd be looking at the context, you'd see a big fish, the one.

Oh, I guess the one means the fish here.

Okay, so substitutes have many of those same properties as references.

Types of substitution, then, I've already said it, but now you can see them here on a nice single slide, right?

We have nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution there are only these words

that function as substitutes for nominal substitution there's there are only the word one ones

and same for verbal substitution there's only the verb do of course it could be in any tense

and aspect it can be do does did will do will be doing will have done

and so on right but it's the verb do in any of those forms

and for clausal substitutes you only have so and not

and that's it right notice that with has barbara left i think

so i think barbara has left

or you could say has barbara left i think not i think barbara has not left right

that's it so there are three types of substitution nominal verbal causal

and only those words there can function as substitutes

if you see another word like for example it you already

should know it is a reference it can't be a substitute

because it is a reference as you'll see they can be similar

but they are different enough that they are separate categories right

so one is a substitute it is a reference let's look at how

that works right think carefully about it

and one in these two examples right reference where's my old

jacket i saw it in the hall substitution where's my old jacket your new one is in the closet what

if you can pause

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and think about what does it presuppose what does it how

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do you interpret it here versus how do you interpret one in the substitution example right you'll see

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that they're not identical they're similar but not identical so pausing and thinking about it. And now you're back.

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And I hope you've seen that in reference, where's my old jacket?

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I saw it in the holiday.

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It means your old jacket.

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You're talking about the same thing, right?

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In the example for reference, A is talking about my old jacket and B is also talking about it, which is that same old jacket.

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With substitution, something different happens, as you can see now, I hope, right?

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A is talking about where's my old jacket.

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A is talking about his or her old jacket.

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B is still talking about jackets, but not the same jacket, right?

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A is talking about my old jacket.

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B is talking about your new jacket.

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That's what happens whenever you use a substitute, right?

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With a reference, you're always talking about the same thing.

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If I say Gwen and I are having lunch together, we are going to, the we means Gwen and I.

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Gwen and I and we refer to the exact same two people, me and my wife, right?

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With substitution, you're always referring, sorry, I shouldn't say referring.

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With substitution, you're always presupposing the same general type of thing,

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in this case, jacket, but a different subtype, Right.

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Picture it like with substitution.

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A refers to jackets, old jacket.

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B refers to jackets, new jacket.

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That always happens where the general class of things stays the same and the subclass changes.

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Right.

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If you think back to that example I gave of the fish, someone's holding up a large fish.

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You should have seen the one that got away.

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We're talking about fish you have in the first case the fish I'm holding

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and in the second case the one

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that got away a different fish not this one

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that I'm holding that's what always happens with substitution you are talking about the same general category

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but a different subcategory as you see here with it means the same old jacket whereas one just means jacket

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but not the old one

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get on to some more examples here one and ones as nominal substitute is the same

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except that ones is plural right I shoot the hippopotamus with bullets made of platinum

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because if I use a leaden one

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if I use a leaden bullet his hide is sure to flatten them

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so in the first time bullets are referred to in red we're talking about bullets but bullets generally a subcategory, bullets made of platinum.

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In blue, we're referring to

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leaden bullet right bullets but now they are made of lead it doesn't matter

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that we've switched between singular and plural right

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or rather plural bullets is plural and then you're saying leaden one singular

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that doesn't matter right you switch when you use substitutes you switch back

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and forth between singular or plural number

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and it doesn't matter right that's not an important thing the important thing is

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that it's always referring to the same category but a different subcategory right?

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Bullets, platinum, bullets, lead.

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You can say that more formally here.

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One, right?

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The blue one functions as the head of a nominal group, right?

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Nominal means noun, right?

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A noun group.

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We have a noun group, a lead in one.

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The word one there functions as the head, bullets, but the made of platinum part disappears, right?

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And now we have a lead in one.

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So that's what always happens whenever you use a one

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or a nominal substitute you keep the main word the head

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word right fish uh axe in the very first example bullet

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here you keep the head word you get rid of any

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modifiers right sharper axe uh old jacket whatever you get rid of the modifiers

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and you bring in some new modifiers uh the another example

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of how the numbers don't matter right here's a little poem

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uh the first sentence refers to cherry right cherry singular full

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and fair ones full and fair cherries right cherries

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so the switching in number is not important it's important to look for what's changed between the original

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and the substitute what subclass has changed uh we can't as

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a note here we can't substitute for what are called mass nouns

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or non -count nouns right uh a works right these biscuits are stale get some fresh ones uh that works

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because biscuits is a count noun you can count them right

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one biscuit two biscuits three biscuits uh bread is a non -count noun we don't really say one bread, two bread, three bread, right?

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We just say some bread.

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So we don't really say things like this bread stale, get some fresh one, get some fresh ones, get some fresh feels.

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It's possible.

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I'm not saying you never say it, but we tend not to do it.

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It's awkward, right?

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It's interesting, by the way, that for mass nouns, also known as non -count nouns, generally we uh stop counting things

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when they get to be about the size of a pea

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or smaller right a pea

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or smaller you know we say one apple two apples three

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apples do you want do you want an apple do you want two apples right but like

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if you're having dinner you know you don't ask someone do

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you want 17 peas you just say do you want some

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peas right rice right do you want 257 rice no right you just say do you want some rice

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so it's generally quite small things are non -count

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but sometimes larger things for some reason furniture is non -count

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right you say you've got a lot of furniture you don't

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say you have 27 furniture right i realize of course you

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can say you have 27 pieces of furniture you can say you have 20 grains of rice

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but then you're counting pieces or grains right rice itself peas furniture

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and so on they aren't really countable in most cases right uh okay uh where were we

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so here's some more examples of nominal substitution right this is

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the kind of place where you might want to pause for a bit and try it yourself look at

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the the word one or ones uh you've got a green a blue a green

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and a red what word is it substituting it for in each case

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and what's been changed as i said right what's been changed uh

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in other words what class are you talking about

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and what subclass has changed from the first time it's mentioned

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to the second one uh i believe i did i no i didn't spell them out

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so i can do it for you here after you pause for a second

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and then so you'd see now that you've finished pausing you'll see that the blue one refers to story, right?

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But this story was perhaps the strangest one of all time.

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But notice, we've gone from talking about stories, strange, to in the second sentence, story, this story, right?

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With the green, what kind of engines do you want?

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Engines with whistles or engines without?

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So it's engines.

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The first sentence just talks about engines, what kind of engines whistle engines no whistle engines my dear

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I must get a thinner pencil I can't manage this one a bit

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It writes all manner of things that I don't intend.

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One means pencil, but here we can see, right?

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What are we talking about?

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Pencils, the first reference, thinner pencil.

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I can't manage this pencil, right?

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So pencils, thinner pencil, this pencil.

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You can see in all of those cases, you're talking about two different things.

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So one, what does one mean, right?

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Well, it doesn't really have meaning on its own.

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Remember, to be clear, because sometimes people get this confused, we're not talking about the cardinal number one, one, two, three, four, right?

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It's the same form, O -N -E pronunciation one, but we're talking about a different function, right?

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You've got to keep that in mind that, you know, if you see something like there were three little pigs, there were two little pigs, there was one little pig.

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Don't get tricked there.

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That one little pig is just counting.

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That's a cardinal number.

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We're not talking about that.

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Right.

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We're talking about a word that looks the same because it's spelled O -N -E, but it has a different function it substitutes for any other noun, right?

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A noun, one here, it carries over the head.

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By carry over, it means you're reusing the same head word, bullet, but you're changing any modifiers.

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Let's look at, oh, sorry, look at another example to see how that works differently from reference, which you're familiar with, right?

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Notice how here I have a blue pen, you can have it it

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and blue pen are co -referential they refer to the same thing the the pen

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that i'm holding i have a blue pen you can have it right blue pen

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and it both mean this pen that i'm holding in my hand at the moment

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that i'm offering you whereas with substitution i need my blue

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pen you can have my black one you can picture

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that i'm offering you a different one right you ask me

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can i have a pen i say well i need my

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blue pen you can have my black one there's two things there both are pens

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but first i'm talking about blue then i'm talking about the

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black that's what always happens with substitution reference presupposes the head

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and any modifiers it means the head pen

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and the modifiers a blue substitution presupposes only the head one

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means pen it does not mean my blue that's the name for

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that is repudiation uh to repudiate means like to block

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or cancel something right

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so whenever we use a substitute we carry over the head one carries over the word pen

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but the modifiers are repudiated you could say it this way

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right in in this example i need my blue pen you

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can have my black one one substitutes for pen my black

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repudiates my blue that's what always happens there's something carried over in this case pen

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and something is repudiated blocked my blue is repudiated by my

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black right that's the new information is my black the old information my blue is repudiated that always happens

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uh think of it here right we have no coal fires only wood ones i imagine you can see that now

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what does one substitute for i'll leave time for you to to think it

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or say it right what does ones substitute for ones substitutes for fires where is the repudiation substitution.

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Wood repudiates coal, right?

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Fires.

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We have no coal fires.

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We're talking about fires coal, only wood ones.

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Now we're talking about fires wood.

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So that always happens, right?

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Like this, if you want it more elaborately.

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Fire is carried over.

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Coal is repudiated.

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And that's the difference between substitution

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and reference reference always refers to the same thing substitution the

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head stays the same the modifiers change right the new modifiers

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repudiate the old modifiers see there's a sub there's a reference

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we have no coal fires they they means coal fires

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so you're talking about fires coal

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and then they you're talking about fires coal same thing no class change no subclass change here's a picture

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if that helps right to picture it

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that way good uh don't get confused as i said earlier

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with other meanings of one sometimes we use one just to generally mean like people everybody like a personal pronoun

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when you say things like this one never knows what do you mean here uh people never know what might happen

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one should be quiet in the library one must look ways both ways before crossing the road.

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These ones are personal pronouns.

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Don't try to make it substitute for something that won't work.

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And of course, as I said, the counting one, two, three, he made one very good point.

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Don't try to make that into a reference, sorry, into a substitute, right?

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The way to picture, an easy way to picture it is if you can, you know, it's a cardinal number

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if it's modifying something right one point what kind of point

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good point what kind of point very good point what kind

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of point one point one very good point that's a counting one

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if it's modifying something and just by thinking well could i say two three four in

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that place yes he made one very good point he made

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two very good points he made three good very good points oh that's just counting right whereas

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that doesn't work if i'm holding up two pens

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and i say i need my black pen you can have

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the blue one i need my black pen you can have

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the blue two the blue three the blue four no what

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would you say there to go from you can have the blue one

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if you wanted to make

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that plural you'd say you can have the blue ones right

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the singular of the nominal substitute is one the plural is

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ones the singular of the cardinal number one is one the

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plural is two three four five six seven eight right

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so try that if you're trying to figure it out

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if it's a cardinal number or a nominal substitute think

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if i had more would it be ones

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or would it be two three four i'm not talking about personal pronoun much

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because i think a that's rare

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and b it's pretty obvious right you're just saying people might

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never know people never know what might happen same works the

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same way same works the same way it can be a

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nominal substitute it can be a comparative reference as we saw before you've got to distinguish between them right

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when you say she has the same phone you're just comparing

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the phone notice it's modifying the phone it works as a

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modifier here right what kind of phone same phone you're comparing two phones my phone

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and her phone how do they compare she has the same phone

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or think about how you'll know it's a comparative reference as we talked about last week

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if you could put in similar

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or different right she has the same phone she has a

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different phone she has a similar phone then you know you're comparing

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uh whereas as a substitute you're doing this right i'll have two poached eggs on toast

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and then gwen says i'll have the same i'll have the poached i'll have two poached eggs on toast

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notice she can't say here i'll have the similar i'll have the different that doesn't work right

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she's substituting the word same

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but talking about how she's using the word same as a

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substitute instead of just saying i'll have the two poached eggs on toast too please

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which of course she could say same as a substitute is rare compared to one

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and once so we won't say much more about it other than

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that right it does have that characteristic of repudiation as you saw uh sorry

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so i'll say this i'll say this last thing about same as a substitute it does have

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that characteristic of repudiation if she says i'll have the two poets

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if she said where is it i'll have two poached eggs

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on toast please i'll have the same notice we're both talking about poached eggs on toast

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but i'm talking about the ones I want she's talking about

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the ones she wants right she doesn't actually want my poached

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eggs on toast she wants a different subclass ones for her not one for me

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or she could do something like this

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which would maybe be more obvious right I'll have two poached

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eggs on toast please she has a I'll have two I'll have the same

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but fried you can see she's talking about two eggs on toast

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but fried repudiates poached

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so that's maybe a more obvious example of nominal substitution using

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the word same that's going to be the end of it

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because it's not used that much compared to one

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and ones verbal substitution is i think uh as i said earlier just the word do

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and it's used in all of its forms oh do does

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did doing will be doing have been doing has been done and so on

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uh always what you're substituting is the word the verb do

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for another verb the words did not come the same as

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they used to come right here do does not mean do

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like do your homework like try to accomplish right here do

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substitutes for the word come uh i don't know the meaning of half those long words

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and what's more I don't believe you know the meaning of half those long words either.

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So it can substitute for a simple one word verb like do and the blue do substitutes just for the verb come.

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the word come one word, the red do substitutes for a whole verb,

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phrase, and possibly into the whole, everything except the subject, in other words, right?

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So don't just look for the individual verb.

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Pick the part that makes sense.

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Is it just the word come, as in the blue one, or does it make more sense to take the full verb

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and the rest of the predicate like you've done with the red one?

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Here, I'm just showing them again, both together so you can compare.

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It can be, what often happens, what I mean here, can cross sentence boundaries.

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Sometimes the examples, at first, to make them clear, I, textbooks in general, use examples

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that are simple one sentence right like the words did not

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come the same as they used to where the do

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and the come are in the same sentence

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or be is a longer sentence the red do

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and what it substitutes for are in the same sentence

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so for simplicity that's a good way to start

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but in reality we don't have to substitute for things in the same sentence here it's in a different sentence, right?

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He never really succeeded in his ambitions.

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He might have succeeded in his ambitions, one felt, had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.

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Here it's in a different sentence.

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It doesn't even have to be just the previous sentence.

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It could be two sentences back, three sentences back, right?

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So I'm saying this to make it clear

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that the examples I give at first are i hope to promote clarity understanding

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but we can do things a lot more uh complicated than just using substitutions

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and references for and any other form in the same sentence

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uh there is the same thing repudiation when we when we talk

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and use verbal substitutes there is

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that repudiation right uh does granny look after you every day

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and then the other it probably should say a

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and b here sorry one person says does granny look at you does granny look after you every day

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and the other says she can't do it weekends

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because she has got to she has to go to her own house right

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so you realize

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that do here the red do means look after me right

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does granny look after you every day she can't look after me at weekends you realize

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that that's what it substitutes for

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and do you see the repudiation right the question is talking

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about granny looking after you every day the answer she can't do it weekends granny looking after you

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not every day because not weekends i won't go into it much more than

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that because we already talked about repudiation in the first case of nominal substitution

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but you can we'll practice later of course right uh there's all there's still

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that repudiation you're talking about this with nominal substitution we were

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talking about the same class of thing acts fish fire whatever

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with verbs we're talking about the same class of action in this case looking after uh

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and then the subclass looking after when, right?

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On weekends, well, or sorry, every day or, well, no, not every day, only during the week because not weekends.

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Clausal substitution.

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Sorry, I'm going to pause for a second.

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I need a drink.

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Sorry.

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Sorry about that.

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Clausal substitution and verbal substitution look at the difference here in the amount of information that is substituted for.

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Sometimes people get this a bit mixed up.

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Remember, the only possible words that can act as clausal substitutes are so and not.

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So I say, is there going to be rain?

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And she says the weather report says so

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so presupposes the whole clause there is going to be rain

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and you know that's a clause because it's got a subject there

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and a verb is going to

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and then the rest of it to be be rain right verbal substitution it's the verb

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and maybe more of the verb phrase and predicate

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but not the subject that's the important thing to notice right

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if I say did the rain soak the garden and she says it must have done.

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Done means soak the garden.

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It doesn't mean, it doesn't presuppose the subject, which was the rain, right?

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What happened to the rain?

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I said did the rain.

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What happened to the rain?

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She used a reference, it, right?

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It references the rain, done substitutes for soak the garden.

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So in that case, she's using a reference and a substitute, but it's a verbal substitute.

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Whereas whenever you use so or the negative form not, it's a very convenient way of substituting for the whole previous clause, right?

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Is there going to be rain?

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The weather report says so, or the weather report says not, as I showed here.

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And you can use the language that way, right?

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Not presupposes there is going to be rain.

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You know, I haven't said this yet, but a good way to think of this is, imagine, this works for reference, for substitution, for everything, right?

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Imagine someone entered, let's say we're talking, right?

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And someone enters the room right as you they enter the

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room only to hear Gwen say the weather report says not

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so some of us are in the room I say is

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there going to be rain Gwen says the weather report says

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not now all of us are in the room know what

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not means all of us who are in the room know

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that not is interpreted as the weather report says there is not going to be rain.

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Think about how someone who entered the room only to hear Gwen talk, they missed what I said, so they come in and they hear Gwen say the weather report says not.

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That person who's come in just at that point knows those words, they know they're all English words, but they don't know how to interpret the word not there.

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Perhaps Gwen is saying the weather report says there is not going to be snow.

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The weather report says it won't rain until next Saturday, whatever, right?

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They don't know exactly what's meant.

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So that's often a useful way to think about it, right?

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What do we who've seen the earlier part of the text in this case, is there going to be rain?

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What do we know that someone who arrived a bit late doesn't know.

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That's the way to think of how you interpret these,

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about how to explain what is missing for the person who arrived late. So, where were we?

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Like this, right?

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You've got language being broken into discrete chunks of language called texts there are various ways

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that we know a text exists as a text

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because it sticks together we saw reference in the past today

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we've talked about substitution for now what you should be sure to know is this right uh

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that there are three types if you if you

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if you know this you're in a good position to have a base of understanding how this works right

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if you know that there are substitutes, which are nominal, verbal, causal, and that the types of nominal substitute are one and its plural ones,

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and very rarely same, that the verbal substitute is do, and that the causal substitutes are so and not.

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And that if you can remember that and think about how to distinguish between reference and substitution,

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it's that word repudiation, right?

454

That reference the reference refers to the same thing exactly the substitute refers to the same type of thing

455

but in a different subclass right my axe is too blunt I must get a sharper one

456

talking about axes but first it's the blunt axe I have now next it's the sharper axe

457

that I must get and so on for verbal substitution

458

and clausal substitution good so keep

459

that list in mind nominal verbal clausal with the associated term repudiation

460

and you're in a good position to keep going with this topic.

461

Thank you very much.

462

Bye.

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このレッスンの語彙とスピーキングのポイント

このスピーキングレッスンは、動画「Cohesion 3 - Substitution」を教材にしています。繰り返し出てくる語は次のとおりです：substitute, substitution, word, reference, blue。この動画には、シャドーイング用の文が462文、単語が5388語あります。音声の長さは34:27です。話す速さは1分あたり約156語で、日常会話に近い自然なペースです。単語の82%は英語の頻出3,000語に含まれます。残りは練習の前に確認しておきましょう。

この動画の重要語彙

動画に出てくる覚えておきたい単語15語を、発音と意味つきで紹介します。

単語	発音	意味
substitute 名詞	/ˈsʌb.stɪ.tʃuːt/	代替
jacket 名詞	/ˈd͡ʒæk.ɪt/	ジャケット
verb 名詞	/vɝb/	動詞
noun 名詞	/naʊn/	名詞
refer 動詞	/ɹɪˈfɜː/	問い合わせる
bullet 名詞	/ˈbʊlɪt/	弾丸, 弾
plural 名詞	/ˈplʊəɹəl/	複数
sharp 形容詞	/ʃɑɹp/	鋭い, 鋭利な
egg 名詞	/ɛɡ/	卵, 玉子
toast 名詞	/toʊst/	トースト
pencil 名詞	/ˈpɛnsəl/	鉛筆
pause 名詞	/pɔːz/	休止, 中断
clause 名詞	/klɔːz/	節
blunt 形容詞	/blʌnt/	鈍い
singular 形容詞	/ˈsɪŋ.ɡjə.lɚ/	唯一, 無二

動画に出てくる句動詞

単語	意味
come down 動詞	降りる
go down 動詞	降りる, 降下する
write down 動詞	書き留める, 記す

繰り返し練習したい文

動画に出てくる短く完結した文です。日常会話でそのまま使えます。

How did you know what does?
You're talking about the same thing, right?
A is talking about where's my old jacket.
That's what happens whenever you use a substitute, right?
What are we talking about?

この動画の文法

話し手がよく使っている文型を、動画の実際の表現とともに紹介します。

文型	動画での表現
条件文 if + 節, will/would + 動詞 — 条件とその結果	if i had more would it · if she says i'll have · if she said where is it i'll have
「used to」 used to + 動詞 — 今はもう違う過去の習慣や状態	used to come · used to where
現在完了形 have/has + 過去分詞 — 過去の出来事が今も関係している	has left · I've already said · have done
受動態 be + 過去分詞 — 誰がするかより、何が起きるかに焦点を当てる	is divided · are listed · are referred

注意したい発音

話し手はyou're, don't, I'llなど、短縮形や弱形を148回使っています。聞こえたとおりの短い形で発音しましょう。

「sh」と「zh」の音: sharp /ʃɑɹp/, relation /ɹɪˈleɪʃ(ə)n/, structural /ˈstɹʌk(t͡)ʃəɹəl/, ambition /æmˈbɪʃ.ən/, distinguish /dɪˈstɪŋ.ɡwɪʃ/
長い単語（アクセントの位置に注意）: comparative /kəmˈpæɹətɪv/, characteristic /ˌkæɹ(ə)ktəˈɹɪstɪk/, complicated /ˈkɑm.plɪˌkeɪ.tɪd/, differently /ˈdɪf.ə.ɹənt.li/, simplicity /sɪmˈplɪsɪti/

日本語話者が苦手な音：

/r/ と /l/ の区別 — /l/ は舌先を歯茎につけ、/r/ はどこにもつけない: plural /ˈplʊəɹəl/, relation /ɹɪˈleɪʃ(ə)n/, structural /ˈstɹʌk(t͡)ʃəɹəl/, carefully /ˈkɛɹf(ə)li/, rarely /ˈɹɛəɹli/
/v/ — /b/ にならないように、上の歯を下唇に当てる: verb /vɝb/, verbal /ˈvɜː.bəl/, comparative /kəmˈpæɹətɪv/, versus /ˈvɝsəs/, convenient /kənˈviː.niənt/
/f/ — 「フ」ではなく、上の歯と下唇で出す: refer /ɹɪˈfɜː/, furniture /ˈfɝ.nɪ.t͡ʃɚ/, modify /ˈmɑ.dɪˌfaɪ/, confused /kənˈfjuːzd/, phrase /ˈfɹeɪ̯z/

この動画での練習方法

まず声を出さずに動画を最後まで聞き、知らない単語をメモします。
まず0.75倍速で一文ずつシャドーイングし、慣れてきたら通常の速度に戻します。
自分の声を録音して元の音声と比べます。substitute, jacket, verbなどの単語に特に注意しましょう。

シャドーイングとは？英語上達に効果的な理由

シャドーイング（Shadowing）は、もともとプロの通訳者養成プログラムで開発された言語学習法で、多言語習得者として知られるDr. Alexander Arguelles によって広く普及されました。方法はシンプルですが非常に効果的：ネイティブスピーカーの英語を聞きながら、1〜2秒の遅延で声に出してすぐに繰り返す——まるで「影（shadow）」のように話者を追いかけます。文法ドリルや受動的なリスニングと異なり、シャドーイングは脳と口の筋肉が同時にリアルタイムで英語を処理・再現することを強制します。研究により、発音精度、抑揚、リズム、連音、リスニング力、そして会話の流暢さが大幅に向上することが確認されています。IELTSスピーキング対策や自然な英語コミュニケーションを目指す方に特におすすめです。

シャドーイングのやり方: ステップ別の完全ガイドを読む →

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