ฝึกพูดภาษาอังกฤษด้วยเทคนิค Shadowing จากวิดีโอ: Homeostasis
กำลังสร้างบทเรียน...
1
What's up Ninja Nerds?
2
In this video we're going to be talking about homeostasis.
3
Before we get started, if you guys like this video, it makes sense to you, it truly benefits you, please support us.
4
And one of the best ways that you can do that is by hitting that like button, commenting down in the comment section, and please subscribe.
5
It really, really helps us to continue to keep making free videos for all of you guys' enjoyment, so please do that.
6
Also, if you guys want some awesome notes and illustrations to check out
7
while we kind of go through this lecture together go down
8
the description box below to take you to our website we have some great notes
9
and illustrations but let's talk about homeostasis
10
when we talk about homeostasis what is homeostasis it's basically the state of balance right
11
so you want to be able to maintain a balance within our body systems
12
and so one of the best ways
13
that I think of kind of explaining homeostasis is utilizing examples
14
I think it'll kind of give you the bare bones information
15
it'll help you to be able to truly think about this in a very specific pathophysiological or physiological way.
16
So when we talk about homeostasis is trying to be able to maintain a degree of balance.
17
So whenever something is out of balance and we'll use two particular examples on something like glucose, the glucose levels are too low or they're too high.
18
Well, that's a state of imbalance.
19
How do we help to be able to maintain that balance?
20
One of the ways that we help to be able to counteract the imbalance
21
or to counteract the imbalance response is we use something called the negative feedback mechanism.
22
So I want you to think about the negative feedback system or the mechanism as the counter response, the counter response, if you will.
23
So in other words, there's some type of problem.
24
In other words, there's a stimulus, if you will.
25
What is this stimulus?
26
The stimulus in this particular example that we're going to be referring to is glucose.
27
So glucose, we obviously want it to be able to maintain a normal level.
28
And that varies, but generally if the glucose levels are too high.
29
So the glucose levels within the blood are too high.
30
This is a particular stimulus for our body.
31
And what happens is, this high glucose will then go to a particular organ in our body called the pancreas.
32
And when it goes to the pancreas, there's different types of cells.
33
We call them pancreatic alpha cells, right?
34
And on these pancreatic alpha cells, they have these like little receptors on them.
35
Some of these receptors here, we call them glut receptors.
36
And what these glut receptors do is when glucose actually binds to them, they kind of move the glucose into the cell.
37
And that's the signal to the cell.
38
Hey, glucose levels are really, really high pancreas.
39
I need you to respond to this high glucose level.
40
And so the pancreas as a response to this high glucose level will make a very special type of hormone.
41
And this hormone is called insulin.
42
And what insulin does is, is insulin is the signal that then goes and binds onto these like little receptors on different cells in the body.
43
When it binds onto these receptors, it tells this cell, hey,
44
I need you to open up these like protein channels and start shuttling in glucose into the cell.
45
And so what it does is, it opens up these channels and starts pulling glucose out of the blood and into the cell.
46
Now, as a response to that, think about this, my friends.
47
High glucose was the stimulus, okay?
48
High glucose is going to be the stimulus.
49
Then, a receptor has to pick up that signal.
50
This will be the glut receptors.
51
The glut receptors has to send signals to your pancreas.
52
So it's gonna send afferent signals into your actual pancreas.
53
It's gonna send information to the pancreas, say, hey, pancreas, that blood sugar will be high.
54
I need you to make insulin.
55
So then the pancreas will be the control center, if you will.
56
The pancreas will then send an efferent signal via the insulin.
57
The insulin is then going to go and act on an effector.
58
In this case, these tissue cells.
59
And when it acts on the effector, it's going to produce a particular response.
60
And what is that response?
61
To shuttle glucose into these cells.
62
And what's the overall effect out of all of this?
63
The overall effect is if I pull glucose out of the blood into the cells, I'm going to lower my blood glucose levels.
64
And that's a homeostatic mechanism. And the same concept.
65
What if the glucose levels are too low?
66
So now we go to the opposite situation here where the glucose levels are too low.
67
Well, this is an abnormal type of change within the body.
68
Homeostasis, we want to try to maintain a balance.
69
So the negative feedback system will develop a counter response.
70
The glucose will then be what?
71
The stimulus.
72
It'll then go and do what?
73
Tell these glut receptors that are present on the pancreas that, hey, glucose is low.
74
If the glucose is low, then the pancreas will respond to that and say, oh, okay, if the glucose is really, really low, I need to be able to figure out a way to increase the glucose.
75
So then what it does is it makes a hormone.
76
And this hormone is called glucagon.
77
Glucagon.
78
And what glucagon does is it binds onto these little receptors on your liver.
79
Tells the liver, hey, liver, we need some glucose in the bloodstream.
80
So what the liver does is it breaks down big molecules present inside of the actual liver called glycogen,
81
or takes other molecules like amino acids and lactate and fatty acids
82
and turns it into glucose via a process called gluconeogenesis or glycogenolysis.
83
and then pushes this glucose into the bloodstream.
84
So if you think about it, the low glucose was the stimulus.
85
It will then act on the glut receptor, which is going to be the receptor.
86
The pancreas will be the control center, who will then release glucagon.
87
Glucagon will then be the efferent signal to another particular target organ or an effector.
88
That effector is going to be the liver.
89
and the overall response is it's going to put more glucose into the bloodstream, and what will happen, my friends?
90
The glucose will increase.
91
So that is the concept that I want you guys to understand when we're talking about negative feedback mechanisms.
92
But maybe you're still a little tough.
93
It's still tough to kind of, okay, I get it, I get it, Zach, but I'm not there yet.
94
Let me give you another example to really solidify it.
95
So now what we're going to do is we're going to say, okay, I'm not going to talk about blood glucose now.
96
I want to talk about body temperature because body temperature is a big thing as well.
97
I really want to be able to maintain a normal body temperature.
98
So let's say that I expose one person to very cold temperatures and I expose another person to very hot temperatures.
99
Our body wants to be able to maintain a certain degree of homeostasis.
100
We don't want to be too cold.
101
We don't want to be too hot.
102
We don't want to have too high glucose levels and we don't want to have too low glucose levels.
103
So what happens is this cold temperature will stimulate something called thermoreceptors.
104
So the cold temperature is the stimulus.
105
The hot temperature is also a stimulus.
106
It'll then hit these thermoreceptors in the skin.
107
When you hit the thermoreceptors in the skin,
108
these are coupled with nerves and it'll send signals toward your central nervous system.
109
This is your afferent signals
110
and it'll go to a very specific structure in your cns
111
you know what this structure is called here it's called the hypothalamus
112
so we're just going to represent this right here as your
113
hypo thalamus it's going to be the same thing for this
114
structure right here the hypothalamus will then respond to this particular signal that hey there's really cold temperatures
115
And then what it'll do is it'll send efferent signals down through your spinal cord,
116
out through particular nerves that go and send signals to these effectors to produce a clinical response.
117
What are those effectors?
118
Well, one of them is the blood vessels.
119
If there's really cold temperatures, I don't want the blood vessels on my skin to be dilated because if they're dilated, a lot of blood flow goes there.
120
And two things happen with increasing blood flow to the skin.
121
One is it irradiates heat.
122
So that's going to be a way of losing heat.
123
I don't want to lose heat.
124
So I don't want to vasodilate them.
125
I want to vasoconstrict them.
126
Second thing is if lots of blood flow go through here, it helps these glands to be able to make sweat.
127
And sweat will then coat the skin and then allow for evaporative cooling.
128
I don't want to cool my body.
129
I'm already too cold.
130
So what I want to do is, is I want to vasoconstrict this vessel.
131
So I'm going to cause vasoconstriction of the cutaneous vessels.
132
And then I'm going to inhibit sweat gland production.
133
I'm going to cause a vasoconstriction response and I'm going to inhibit sweat production.
134
So this will inhibit or reduce evaporative cooling.
135
The other concept is I'm going to send signals to my muscles.
136
You know my skeletal muscles?
137
When they help them, you know whenever we shiver, you guys ever been in a cold temperature, do you shiver?
138
When you shiver, it actually generates ATP.
139
It's these incomplete kind of contractions.
140
And so what I really want to do is I want to help to kind of cause an increased stimulation
141
to these actual skeletal muscles.
142
And I want to produce a very profound shivering response to counteract the cold temperatures.
143
And what this will do is this will increase heat production.
144
And this will help to counteract the cold temperature.
145
And the same thing, a vasoconstriction and inhibiting of sweat production will do what?
146
This effect will actually inhibit evaporative cooling.
147
And again, that will do what?
148
Inhibit the actual cold temperature.
149
And that's the goal, is to counteract.
150
In the same concept, my friends,
151
hot temperatures hits the thermoreceptors, stimulates the thermoreceptors sends afferent signals up through the nerves to your hypothalamus.
152
Hypothalamus, which is the control center, says, okay, body's way too hot.
153
I'm going to send efferent signals down to the effector organs so that we can actually develop a clinical response.
154
And then that clinical response will hopefully, Lord willing, counteract the stimulus, the hot temperatures.
155
So now all I've got to do is do the opposite here.
156
I want to vasodilate because if I vasodilate, I get a lot of blood flow through my skin, which radiates heat.
157
That's good.
158
So I want to cause vasodilation.
159
And then if I vasodilate my blood vessels, also I'm going to get a lot of blood flow
160
and I'm also getting a lot of sympathetic supply here to my glands.
161
And so if that's the case, what I'm going to do is I'm going to increase my sweat production.
162
And if I increase my sweat production, then what I'm going to do is I'm going to have this nice layer of sweat here.
163
And whenever the air kind of hits that, it's going to allow for an evaporative cooling response.
164
And so I want to stimulate sweat production.
165
And the combination of these two particular processes will do what?
166
It'll allow for stimulation of evaporative cooling.
167
And that is a great thing because it's going to start cooling the body.
168
And if I cool the body, what am I going to do?
169
I'm going to inhibit my body's increase in the internal body temperature.
170
Same concept, I'm actually going to do what to my muscles?
171
Do I want them to shiver now to generate heat?
172
No, I don't want them to shiver.
173
So I'm going to inhibit the actual shivering response.
174
So if I inhibit shivering, I won't be able to generate a lot of heat.
175
So then that'll do what?
176
That'll decrease the heat production from my muscles from my muscles.
177
And if I decrease the heat production, that'll decrease the increase in the internal body temperature.
178
And that's the counteractive response.
179
It's the same concept.
180
These are my stimulus.
181
These are my receptors.
182
The blue and red are the afferent signals.
183
The signals coming up to this structure here, the hypothalamus, is my control center.
184
The efferent signals going down to my actual effector organs from these points here is my efferent signals.
185
Oops, efferent signals, apologize.
186
And then the last point here is going to be my effectors, which is gonna be these particular structures here.
187
And then this would be the last part here which would be the effectors, which would be the skin, the blood vessels, and the muscles.
188
That's the concept that I want you guys to understand here with the negative feedback system
189
but that's not the only thing that plays a role in homeostasis.
190
We also have something that's kind of interesting called the positive feedback, let's talk about that.
191
All right, so positive feedback mechanism.
192
So when we talk about this again, homeostasis is maintaining a state of balance.
193
Many different disease processes, right, they don't allow for that counterbalance.
194
So in situations where maybe the glucose is too high, maybe the problem with them not being able to bring the glucose down is they have a problem with insulin, right?
195
And so that's kind of the whole process.
196
When there is a breakdown in the homeostatic mechanism, it's usually a disease process.
197
Now, negative feedback is to counteract a response.
198
So low glucose, high glucose, low temp, high temp, we get the point.
199
You can continue to go down the list.
200
High blood pressure, low blood pressure, high pH, low pH.
201
We can go down a list of all types of abnormalities and how our body maintains that balance.
202
Positive feedback is a little bit different.
203
In this one, you're amplifying the initial response, which is odd, right?
204
So you often don't really kind of want this type of response.
205
So what situations which are actually truly helpful for you in your exam to remember positive feedback mechanisms,
206
where actually amplifying the response to the initial stimulus would actually be a good thing?
207
The first one is the birthing process.
208
that baby be stretching the cervix, right?
209
And so during the birthing process, you be stretching that cervix all the way out here, right?
210
So there's a great degree of stretching during the birthing process.
211
That stretching of the cervix is a very powerful stimulus that activates stretch receptors within the uterus.
212
These stretch receptors then send afferent signals to your control center.
213
And in this case, that control center, guess what it is?
214
The hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary.
215
So here in the control center, we have a structure here called the hypothalamus.
216
And another really important structure that the hypothalamus influences is called the posterior pituitary.
217
And what happens is the hypothalamus will stimulate the posterior pituitary who will then release something called oxytocin.
218
That's our efferent signal.
219
Oxytocin will then move down and bind onto particular types of receptors on the muscle of the uterus.
220
Now if a baby is stretching the cervix of the uterus and you're getting ready to have birth, would you want to not contract and help to push the baby out?
221
or would you want to contract up to push the baby out?
222
That's the goal, right?
223
So we actually don't want to kind of prevent any kind of like issues here.
224
We actually want to continue to cause contraction of the uterus that'll push the baby further.
225
And guess what it's gonna do?
226
Stretch the cervix even more.
227
That's amplifying the response.
228
So what oxytocin will do is it'll stimulate uterine contraction and it'll try to propel the baby further down into the cervix,
229
which is going to be jamming that cervix out even more.
230
So you'll increase the stretch of the cervix.
231
You'll increase the stimulation of the stretch receptors, increase the stimulation of the hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary, continue to increase more oxytocin,
232
increase uterine contraction, and do this process until what?
233
Until the baby is expelled, all right?
234
That's the really important process for birth.
235
There's two more examples that I think are really helpful.
236
And again, just keep thinking about this process.
237
You always have a stimulus, a receptor, an afferent signal, a control center, an efferent signal, and then the effector.
238
It's been the same thing.
239
We've kind of learned it throughout the process.
240
But the next mechanism is here we have a baby.
241
So here we have the breast tissue, right?
242
Here's a baby who's suckling on the breast, right?
243
So the stimulus is suckling.
244
So this is usually during the lactation process, right?
245
So the stimulus is suckling.
246
What it does is the suckling activates certain types of tactile or mechanoreceptors around the breast.
247
That then sends signals down the nerves connected to the actual mechanoreceptors to what?
248
To the hypothalamus and the pituitary structures.
249
What is this again?
250
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.
251
I'm gonna put anterior pituitary here.
252
And there's also another structure called the posterior pituitary.
253
Now, anterior pituitary makes a very specific hormone.
254
And this one is called prolactin.
255
And the posterior pituitary, we already know which one that moan makes.
256
Oxytocin.
257
The difference here is there's two efferent signals.
258
So the stimulus was the suckling.
259
The receptor was the mechanoreceptor.
260
The nerves going to the hypothalamus is going to be the afferent signal.
261
The hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary are the control center.
262
The prolactin, the oxytocin are going to be the effectors.
263
Or the efferent signal, I apologize, efferent signal.
264
The effector will be the breast tissue.
265
When prolactin is released, what does it do to the actual breast tissue to produce a response?
266
It actually stimulates these glands to make milk.
267
So it actually stimulates milk production.
268
So now these glands here in the breast tissue are gonna fill up with the good old milk.
269
Okay?
270
The next thing is that oxytocin is going to stimulate milk ejection.
271
So it's gonna stimulate milk ejection.
272
We also call this the milk letdown reflex, or the letdown reflex.
273
So now it's gonna stimulate myoepithelial cells around the gland and pa-poo!
274
we're gonna shoot some of that milk right into the baby's gullet.
275
And so from here, the actual response is gonna be prolactin and oxytocin stimulating what?
276
These we're gonna draw with little dots here.
277
Here's the prolactin, here's the oxytocin.
278
Prolactin will stimulate the milk production.
279
Oxytocin will stimulate milk ejection.
280
And that's gonna be the response.
281
The The effector is the actual mammary glands of the breast tissue.
282
That's the concept there.
283
Alright, if that's not enough, let's do one last one.
284
Here we have a stimulus.
285
The stimulus is there's a hole or a tear in a blood vessel.
286
Whatever that reason may be, there's a hole in the blood vessel there.
287
When the hole in the blood vessel occurs, certain chemicals are released that signal the platelets and tell the platelets, hey, platelets, there's an injury here.
288
So the platelets then respond to that.
289
And they have little receptors on them that kind of take off that information.
290
They say, okay, I'm going to come and stick to you.
291
So then the platelets stick to this actual hole in the blood vessel.
292
When they stick to the hole in the blood vessel, the next thing that they do is they release more chemicals.
293
And these chemicals tell more platelets, hey, there's a lot of kind of like injury over here, a lot of platelets sticking here.
294
Can you come and stick to this platelet plug as well.
295
And they come and stick.
296
And again, more platelets will continue to stick here, and they'll release more chemicals that'll tell more platelets to, again, come and stick.
297
And you see the whole point was there was a stimulus, but what did we do with each one of these particular scenarios?
298
We amplified the response.
299
That's another concept of a patient developing a positive feedback mechanism.
300
And this is via what's called the platelet plug.
301
So the platelet plug.
302
And the same thing with the suckling mechanism.
303
The trigger was the baby suckling.
304
What is going to happen is it's going to cause this baby to do what?
305
Send signals all the way up to the hypothalamus to produce hormones that will cause milk production.
306
The milk will then be ejected into the baby's mouth.
307
What's the baby going to continue to keep doing?
308
Suckling.
309
So that it can continue to stimulate these receptors, send more signals to make more milk.
310
It's a constant amplifying process.
311
That's the big thing to take away from this.
312
And that finishes our discussion here on homeostasis.
313
I hope that you guys liked it and hope it made sense.
314
As always, until next time.
📺 ช่องเดียวกัน
✨ วิดีโอแนะนำ
C16
108 ประโยค
Homeostasis - How Your Body Keeps its Balance - Physiology Series
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C1757
15 ประโยค
How Stress Changes Your Brain
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C113
158 ประโยค
Introduction to Cognitive Bias: Crash Course Scientific Thinking #1
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepCambridge Exam Prep
C14
104 ประโยค
Why Are You Alive – Life, Energy & ATP
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C11
110 ประโยค
Feedback Mechanisms - Your body’s control Systems - Physiology
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C14
131 ประโยค
The medicine myth | Denis Noble, Nessa Carey, Guy Brown
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
B22
99 ประโยค
Endocrine System
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C16
159 ประโยค
Introduction to the immune system
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C15
75 ประโยค
Why do we get Thirsty? | #aumsum #kids #education #science
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C18
103 ประโยค
Physiology Chapter 1 | Introduction to Physiology & Homeostasis Explained
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C1155 ประโยค
Carbon... SO SIMPLE: Crash Course Biology #1
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
C13
214 ประโยค
The Nervous System Explained Simply | Brain, Neurons & Signals
IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students
คำศัพท์และข้อสังเกตด้านการพูดสำหรับบทเรียนนี้
วิดีโอนี้มี 314 ประโยค และ 3594 คำ สำหรับฝึกพูดตาม ช่วงที่มีเสียงพูดยาว 21:31 ผู้พูดพูดด้วยความเร็วเป็นธรรมชาติ ประมาณ 167 คำต่อนาที ใกล้เคียงกับบทสนทนาในชีวิตประจำวัน มีเพียง 80% ของคำที่อยู่ใน 3,000 คำที่ใช้บ่อยที่สุดในภาษาอังกฤษ คำศัพท์จึงค่อนข้างยาก
คำศัพท์สำคัญในวิดีโอนี้
คำที่ควรเรียนรู้ 15 คำจากวิดีโอ พร้อมคำอ่านและความหมาย:
| คำศัพท์ | คำอ่าน | ความหมาย |
|---|---|---|
| glucose คำนาม | /ˈɡluː.kəʊz/ | กลูโคส |
| vessel คำนาม | /ˈvɛsəl/ | เรือ |
| mechanism คำนาม | /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/ | กลไก, เครื่อง |
| sweat คำกริยา | /swɛt/ | เหงื่อออก |
| muscle คำนาม | /ˈmʌs.əl/ | กล้ามเนื้อ, กล้าม |
| breast คำนาม | /bɹɛst/ | เต้านม, นม |
| insulin คำนาม | /ˈɪnsəlɪn/ | อินซูลิน |
| tissue คำนาม | /ˈtɪʃ.(j)u/ | ทิชชู่ |
| hormone คำนาม | /ˈhoɹmoʊn/ | ฮอร์โมน |
| nerve คำนาม | /nɝv/ | เส้นประสาท, ประสาท |
| organ คำนาม | /ˈɔːɡən/ | อวัยวะ, องค์ |
| plug คำนาม | /plʌɡ/ | ปลั๊ก, เต้าเสียบ |
| acid คำนาม | /ˈæsɪd/ | กรด |
| alpha คำนาม | /ˈæl.fə/ | แอลฟา |
| apologize คำกริยา | /əˈpɑləˌd͡ʒaɪz/ | ขอโทษ |
กริยาวลีที่คุณจะได้ยิน
| คำศัพท์ | ความหมาย |
|---|---|
| pick up คำกริยา | ยก, หยิบ |
| take off คำกริยา | ถอด |
การออกเสียงที่ควรระวัง
ผู้พูดใช้รูปย่อและรูปลดเสียง 81 ครั้ง เช่น I'm, don't, gonna ให้พูดแบบสั้นตามที่ได้ยิน
- เสียง “th”: sympathetic /ˌsɪm.pəˈθɛt.ɪk/, thalamus /ˈθæləməs/
- เสียง “sh” และ “zh”: tissue /ˈtɪʃ.(j)u/, stimulation /stɪm.jʊˈleɪ.ʃən/, illustration /ˌɪləsˈtɹeɪ̯ʃən/, shuttle /ˈʃʌtəl/, examination /ɪɡˌzæm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/
- คำยาว — ลงเสียงหนักให้ถูกพยางค์: mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, stimulation /stɪm.jʊˈleɪ.ʃən/, anterior /ænˈtɪɹ.i.ɚ/, apologize /əˈpɑləˌd͡ʒaɪz/, illustration /ˌɪləsˈtɹeɪ̯ʃən/
วิธีฝึกกับวิดีโอนี้
- ฟังวิดีโอให้จบหนึ่งรอบโดยยังไม่ต้องพูด แล้วจดคำที่ยังไม่รู้จัก
- เริ่มที่ความเร็ว 0.75× พูดตามทีละประโยค แล้วกลับไปใช้ความเร็วปกติเมื่อเริ่มคล่อง
- อัดเสียงตัวเองแล้วเทียบกับต้นฉบับ โดยสังเกตคำอย่าง glucose, vessel, mechanism เป็นพิเศษ
ไวยากรณ์ในวิดีโอนี้
โครงสร้างที่ผู้พูดใช้บ่อยที่สุด พร้อมคำพูดจริงจากวิดีโอ:
| โครงสร้าง | ในวิดีโอ |
|---|---|
| ประโยคเงื่อนไข if + อนุประโยค, will/would + กริยา — เงื่อนไขและผลลัพธ์ | if I inhibit shivering, I won't be · if I decrease the heat production, that'll decrease |
| Passive voice be + กริยาช่อง 3 — เน้นสิ่งที่เกิดขึ้น ไม่ใช่ผู้กระทำ | is called · are coupled · be dilated |
| Relative clauses who / which + อนุประโยค — ข้อมูลเพิ่มเติมเกี่ยวกับคนหรือสิ่งของ | receptor, which is · Hypothalamus, which is · effectors, which is |
เทคนิค Shadowing คืออะไร?
Shadowing เป็นเทคนิคการเรียนรู้ภาษาที่ได้รับการรับรองทางวิทยาศาสตร์ พัฒนาขึ้นสำหรับการฝึกนักแปลมืออาชีพ วิธีการนี้เรียบง่ายแต่ทรงพลัง: คุณฟังเสียงภาษาอังกฤษจากเจ้าของภาษาและพูดตามทันที — เหมือนเงาที่ตามผู้พูดด้วยช่วงเวลาห่าง 1-2 วินาที การวิจัยแสดงว่าเทคนิคนี้ปรับปรุงความแม่นยำในการออกเสียง ทำนองเสียง จังหวะ การเชื่อมเสียง การฟังเข้าใจ และความคล่องแคล่วในการพูดได้อย่างมีนัยสำคัญ