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You'll never see any of these gargantuan projects completed in person. But soon,
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you'll know exactly what it would feel like to witness the launch of every multi -generational super construction project ever conceived.
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From the realistic to the absolutely insane.
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What would it be like to stand on these megastructures?
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Could we ever realistically build any of these?
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And could humanity ever finish a project that outlives everyone who starts it?
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Now, what is a megastructure?
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And do we have any already underway?
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Well, simply put, a megastructure is just an extremely large man -made structure, like a building.
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It's a project that, if completed, would overshadow any other object completed before it.
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Think of what a skyscraper would look like to a caveman, and then multiply that by a million.
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And while you're thinking of skyscrapers, imagine the biggest one you can.
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The Burj Khalifa, at nearly one kilometer tall, is a structure that took six years to complete.
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That's pretty impressive, right?
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Well, lay it on its side and extend that out 170 times.
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Now you've got a modern -day megastructure, and one that's actually being worked on today.
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Ever heard of The Line?
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That's its name, not something I came up with.
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It's a 170 -kilometer -long city drawn ruler straight across the desert of northwestern Saudi Arabia.
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When it's finished, it will house 9 million people living behind a mirrored wall
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that rises half a kilometer above the shifting dunes.
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The initial budget for this project was a jaw -dropping $500 billion U .S.
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The line's design uses state -of -the -art construction techniques and environmentally sustainable practices.
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It was designed to be a vision of what the future holds, a different concept of human livability.
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All your daily needs are within a five -minute walk.
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For longer trips, there's a high -speed rail system that transports you underground.
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It will only take 20 minutes to go from one end to the other of this line.
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Construction kicked off with thousands of workers and hundreds of machines.
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And soon, we started to see a city emerging from the desert.
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But work was suddenly suspended in September of 2024,
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even though they'd only completed a tiny 2 .4 -kilometer section of the foundation.
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Remember, the plan was 170 kilometers.
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The project had already burned through 8 billion dollars.
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Everything about the line is technologically feasible.
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Nothing was missing from an engineering standpoint.
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It could easily be the city of the future, so why the sudden stoppage?
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A leaked audit estimated that the project was going to take 50 years longer than originally claimed,
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and the actual cost would be $8 .8 trillion dollars.
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That's roughly 1 ,600 times over budget.
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Megastructure meet financial reality.
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Fund managers got spooked and slammed on the brakes.
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If this kind of mismanagement can kill a decades -long project like
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The Line, well, megastructures in space take way longer.
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How can a thousand -year project ever hope to be completed.
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I mean, the ISS was built in 13 years with the cooperation of 15 countries,
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but the projects we're talking about will take so long to complete
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that multiple generations will live and die before construction is complete.
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Is building them even possible?
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In all of human history, do we have any examples of humans being coordinated and motivated enough to actually build something like a megastructure?
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Now, you might already be thinking of an example of a megastructure built, like the Great Pyramids.
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Mega monuments of towering stone built to carry the pharaohs into the afterlife, which surely took an eternity to build.
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Well, written accounts from around
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that time suggest it took about 20 years to build the Great Pyramid of Khufu not exactly the multiple lifetimes
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we're looking for.
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However, there is one interesting example of a building whose construction outlasted its architects and master builders by hundreds of years.
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Though not necessarily intentionally.
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The Cologne Cathedral.
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It was the megastructure of its time.
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Started in 1248, the drawings laid out the plans for the world's largest Gothic cathedral.
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The design for the nave reached a staggering height of 43 .5 meters, that's 143 feet.
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On the outside, the tower facade would be 157 meters, that's over 500 feet high.
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The average person in 13th century Europe would have looked at it the way we look at a space shuttle launch,
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or even a future moon base under construction.
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And if you think about the relatively primitive construction technology they had at the time, it's nothing short of a miracle.
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All the stone was quarried and cut by hand.
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Only simple machines were available to help.
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Ropes and pulley systems were used to hoist heavy stone blocks into place tens of meters into the air.
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Remember that in 1248, the average lifespan of an artisan was only 40 or 50 years.
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Three generations of master builders supervised the first phase, which lasted 200 years.
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Generations of carpenters and stonemasons worked on it, passing down their skills and their jobs to their children and their children's children.
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But then things changed.
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Pilgrims stopped visiting.
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Finances dried up and the work stopped.
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The cathedral stood half -completed with an abandoned construction crane hanging from its south tower for 375 years.
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It looked like it might never be completed, but new money was raised and luckily the original plans were found.
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When construction resumed in 1823,
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it was a testament to their genius that the engineering in the original medieval era plans were still sound.
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And work continued for another 57 years.
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Now when it was finally completed in 1880, 623 years after the first stone was laid,
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the Cologne Cathedral was the world's tallest building.
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And it's still considered to be a marvel of engineering and technological innovation.
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And in some ways, it's never really complete.
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Even today, it takes over 100 craftspeople to maintain it.
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So yeah, I guess people can actually build something that takes multiple generations.
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So what could people actually achieve with today's technology?
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In the 1970s, physicist Gerard O 'Neill challenged the assumption that
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Earth is the best place for humanity.
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He thought that, frankly, we can do better.
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And he came up with an idea to prove it.
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But it was going to take a megastructure.
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It was a simple solution, but on a grand scale.
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Two massive counter -rotating cylinders turning in space at one rotation every two minutes.
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The centrifugal force of the tube's rotation draws everything inside to the surface and replicates
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Earth's gravity at a steady 1G.
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Three strips of land contain cities, and three strips of windows let in sunlight.
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A mirrored shutter system creates a light cycle to mimic
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Earth's day and night.
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The two structures are large enough to hold 7 million people.
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Looking up from anywhere inside of its surface,
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the ponds, gardens, and buildings of your neighbors hanging upside down above you are 8 kilometers away.
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And looking down the full 32 kilometers of its length, the haze of the atmosphere would blur the tube's end.
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Human -powered flight would become a popular pastime because as you left the interior surface,
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the effects of the centrifugal force would fall away.
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The closer to the center you propelled yourself, the lighter you'd become.
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And at the very center of the tube, you'd become weightless.
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Now, O 'Neill didn't invent the basic concept here.
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He wasn't the first to design using the idea of centrifugal force, but he was the first to work out the details scientifically.
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and to prove the feasibility of a cylindrical space colony.
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He was as interested in imagining the possibilities as he was in actually building it.
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Actually building it, that's always the problem, isn't it?
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You see, we can dream up these plans and even start them here on Earth, but to actually start them up there,
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where structures really go mega?
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we're going to need efficient, constant access to space from Earth.
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A permanent structure, like a tethered space elevator, is a must -have for humanity to take the next steps.
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And like the O 'Neill Cylinder, the theoretical engineering of the space elevator has already been worked out.
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It's an unimaginably strong cable made of a carbon nanotube composite,
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and it's anchored to a floating platform in the Pacific Ocean.
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From there, it stretches skyward 100 ,000 kilometers to its endpoint.
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It can lift payloads of 18 tons at speeds of up to 320 kilometers an hour.
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A trip to low
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Earth orbit, first floor, would take an hour.
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This could happen.
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It's just around the corner, cosmically speaking.
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Now, the materials needed to build a space elevator will have to be two or three times stronger than anything we currently have,
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but we're quickly closing the technological gap.
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Now, what if there was a faster way?
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In 1980, British scientist Paul Birch proposed an orbital ring system for access to space from Earth.
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It's a thin ring surrounding the planet in low Earth orbit.
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The cables would be tethered to it and hang down to Earth.
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How is this better than a space elevator?
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A space elevator needs a geostationary anchor out in space to function.
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An object connected to a cable 36 ,000 kilometers long.
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No cable we can make is strong enough for a distance that long.
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But Birch's orbital ring gets around this by building a ring in low
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Earth orbit about 500 km high.
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It would move faster than orbital speed, which is what would hold it up.
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The ring is the anchor, so the cable only has to reach about 500 km down to the ground,
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and a shorter cable needs far less strength.
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The orbital ring around
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Earth could be a great ladder to get our civilization up into space.
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Birch's orbital ring, like O 'Neill's cylinder though, is limited by its creator's restrictions to only use real materials of the age.
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But nanotechnologist Tom McKendry worked out what a space cylinder could be
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if built from materials that don't exist yet diamond -like structures made with molecular nanotechnology.
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His version of a space habitat has a radius of 460 kilometers.
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It's more than 100 times O 'Neill's.
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Now, at some point, the limitations of strength and resources become secondary,
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and the factor holding us back from building more sophisticated and wilder megastructures is energy.
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Today, Earth only intercepts a billionth of the Sun's total energy output.
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But what if we could capture nearly all of it?
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In 1960, a scientist named Freeman Dyson came up with a concept for a sphere the size of Earth's orbit.
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It would be a shell that encompassed the Sun
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and captured all of its energy output it it's a mind -blowing megastructure in concept size
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and ambition it's the kind of technological device
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that would give the human species access to an almost infinite energy source
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and power a quantum leap in our civilization's development it would be a necessary energy upgrade
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and star powered springboard to explore our galaxy.
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Now, unfortunately, the sphere is mechanically impossible to maintain, and Dyson knew it.
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It was theoretically sunk by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, 273 years before Dyson even thought of it.
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Newton's Shell Theorem states that a rigid shell around a gravitational object would feel the pull of gravity evenly everywhere,
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until a tiny external force hits it, and then the whole thing would immediately begin to drift,
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eventually crashing catastrophically into the star itself.
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Dyson's beautiful sphere gets destroyed by physics.
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In Dyson's 1960 paper, he used the word shell to describe his idea.
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Science fiction writers ran with the idea of the solid continuous sphere, but Dyson knew better.
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In follow -up letters, he described a swarm of independent objects, each with its own orbit around the sun.
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Each object is a relatively simple piece of technology that we could manufacture today.
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Really, what keeps us from doing this is the quantity of objects needed to orbit around the Sun.
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And even if we could somehow build that many
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Sun satellites, getting these objects to the right place, orbiting the Sun, would be a megaproject in itself.
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It might sound like a question from a science fiction novel,
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but have we ever seen any evidence that anyone else has built a Dyson Swarm?
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Have we detected any alien civilizations in the universe that might have built one of these things?
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Well, it's not so far out of a question because Dyson himself proposed it even as he was originally imagining his swarms.
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He reasoned that if an extraterrestrial civilization were capturing or reprocessing the power of their sun with technology like a Dyson Swarm,
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there would be a measurable shift in the infrared spectrum of light from that star.
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It's something called a techno -signature.
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In 2024, a group of researchers found seven potential candidates.
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Patterns observed in their sun's brightness were consistent with those expected if an alien civilization had built a swarm around their sun.
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But in 2026, in a follow -up,
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all these examples were dismissed as naturally flaring stars rather than a sign of megastructures.
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So we have no evidence of a Dyson swarm existing elsewhere in the universe.
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Is it even possible to build one of these?
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Where would we even get the enormous amounts of metal and materials needed for such a massive project?
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And where would we even start?
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Well, according to Oxford futurists Armstrong and Sandberg, the project would start on the surface of Mercury.
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And it would begin with a simple one square kilometer area of solar panels.
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And 90 % of the energy from these panels would be used to break down chemical bonds
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and process raw materials from mercury.
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And 10 % would be used to propel these materials into space.
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The materials are used to build solar collectors, which are placed in orbit around mercury
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and beam energy back to the surface for further processing and to launch more material into orbit.
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The process expands exponentially.
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Based on a series of five -year cycles of replicating, processing, and launching solar collectors,
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the project takes 31 years.
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In that time, more than half of mercury would be dismantled and processed into solar collectors that get distributed around the sun.
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The result is a Dyson swarm, and humans capture the entire power of the sun.
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And leveling up to highly speculative science fiction territory,
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writer Larry Niven ran with Dyson's concepts and invented the wildly imaginative Ringworld.
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It's a ring like a gigantic wedding band that circles the sun.
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It might look like a fragile, narrow band from a distance, but Ringworld is a true megastructure.
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It would be 1 .6 million kilometers wide from edge to edge and have 3 million times the surface of Earth.
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Building this would take hundreds, if not thousands, of years.
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We'd have to strip mine half the solar system to get resources to build this.
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But now that we've conquered the output of the sun, what's left to build?
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Well, there's more.
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There's so much more.
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So, you're a future super president of the solar system, and you decide we all need to go visit another galaxy.
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So what do you do?
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Build an Earth -sized spaceship to send us off to Andromeda?
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Maybe the best way to travel between galaxies is to take the thing we can't live without along with us.
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Thank you.
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A shakadov thruster is a theoretical mirror big enough to push the sun
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and all the planets gently across the galaxy on the pressure of radiation alone.
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This is space travel in style.
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A massive sun -sized engine pushing us through the galaxy
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while a swarm of sun satellites captures all its available power feels pretty majestic.
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You might stop to ask, have we reached peak megastructure here?
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Well, what if I told you that a Dyson swarm is actually a rather primitive device?
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Because Robert J.
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Bradbury went a step further.
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A Dyson swarm still has cracks that let some energy through, and its simple design emits waste heat.
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So, what if the sun were surrounded by a series of nested concentric layers,
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each layer capturing the waste heat of the layer inside it, approaching 100 % usage of our star's power?
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This additional energy is what we would need to power a massive sun -sized supercomputer, known as a matryoshka brain.
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It's called a matryoshka brain after the Russian matryoshka dolls that nest inside of one another.
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And its purpose could be a digital utopia where all of humanity's consciousness is uploaded.
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Each person surviving for eternity in paradise.
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It's an insanely long way from being realistic.
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It would need a structure like a space elevator
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or an orbital ring to lift material into space at rates we've never seen before.
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And landings on extraterrestrial soil with the intention to reduce the planet to dust
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and convert all that material into an orbiting mega -computer planet.
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It's nesting interconnected layers, powering civilization into the next level.
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What level is that?
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Well, in 1964, four years after Dyson launched his sphere into the collective imagination,
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Soviet astrophysicist Nikolai Kardashev introduced the idea that extraterrestrial civilizations could be ranked by their energy consumption.
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Known as the Kardashev Scale, he initially proposed three types.
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A Type 1 civilization has achieved the technological means to harness all the available energy from its home planet.
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We humans are on our way to a Type 1 status, but we've got a few steps to go.
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Well, a lot of steps to go.
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A Type 2 civilization would be a massive step up from
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where we are now it would be a civilization capable of capturing and utilizing the total energy output of its host star.
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Imagine capturing all the Sun's power and being able to use it all.
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These civilizations would have built some variation of a Dyson Swarm or a Matryoshka brain and harnessed the power of their star.
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A Type III civilization would have leveled up way beyond its
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own solar system to tap into the energy at the scale of its entire galaxy.
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And following in the theoretical footsteps of Kardashev, others have added on to his scale.
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So a Type 4 civilization would be a civilization harnessing the energy of the entire observable universe.
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A Type 5 conquering the multiverse.
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Even Omega civilizations that exist in a quantum state, rewriting space, time, and reality itself.
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As a barely type one, we've got our work cut out for us.
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Okay, we've seen that physics can be harnessed, technology can be developed, and energy can be captured in almost infinite quantities,
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but the question that really matters is,
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are we going to be the generation that drops the thread and abandons the line to the Arabian sands?
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Or are we going to be like the generation that picked up the thread and finished building the Cathedral of Cologne?
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Or the generation that came together to build the International Space Station?
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Can we see past our immediate future and launch a vision that lasts millennia?
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Do we have the right stuff to become a Type 3 civilization?
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Click on the video on screen now to find out.
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Because that's a story.
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for another What If.
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Vocabolario e note di pronuncia per questa lezione
Questa lezione di conversazione si basa sul video “The Insane Megastructure We Could Build in 31 Years”. Le parole che ritornano più spesso: space, sun, megastructure, civilization, energy. Questo video contiene 261 frasi e 3150 parole da ripetere con lo shadowing. Il parlato dura 25:10. Chi parla mantiene un ritmo costante di circa 125 parole al minuto, comodo per lo shadowing. Solo il 78% delle parole rientra nelle 3.000 più comuni dell’inglese, quindi il lessico è impegnativo.
Vocaboli chiave di questo video
15 parole del video che vale la pena imparare, con pronuncia e significato:
| Parola | Pronuncia | Significato |
|---|---|---|
| civilization sostantivo | /ˌsɪv.ɪ.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/ | civiltà |
| orbit sostantivo | /ˈɔɹ.bɪt/ | orbita |
| capture verbo | /ˈkæp.(t)ʃɚ/ | catturare, riprendere |
| orbital aggettivo | /ɔɹ.bət.l̩/ | orbitale |
| galaxy sostantivo | /ˈɡæl.ək.si/ | galassia |
| cathedral sostantivo | /kəˈθiːdɹəl/ | cattedrale, duomo |
| sphere sostantivo | /sfɪɚ/ | sfera |
| output sostantivo | /ˈaʊtpʊt/ | risultato, produzione |
| layer sostantivo | /ˈleɪ̯ɚ/ | strato |
| shell sostantivo | /ʃɛl/ | conchiglia |
| technological aggettivo | /ˌtɛk.nəˈlɑ.dʒɪ.kəl/ | tecnologico |
| mercury sostantivo | /ˈmɜɹkjəɹi/ | mercurio |
| mirror sostantivo | /ˈmiɹɚ/ | specchio |
| fiction sostantivo | /ˈfɪkʃən/ | finzione |
| strip verbo | /ˈstɹɪp/ | strappare, togliere |
I phrasal verb che sentirai
| Parola | Significato |
|---|---|
| come up with verbo | ideare, escogitare |
| find out verbo | scoprire |
| pass down verbo | passare |
| pick up verbo | tirare su, sollevare |
| take over verbo | usurpare |
Frasi da ripetere
Frasi brevi e complete del video che puoi riutilizzare nella conversazione di tutti i giorni:
- Could we ever realistically build any of these?
- That's its name, not something I came up with.
- Actually building it, that's always the problem, isn't it?
- You might stop to ask, have we reached peak megastructure here?
La grammatica di questo video
Le strutture che chi parla usa di più, con le parole esatte del video:
| Struttura | Nel video |
|---|---|
| Forma passiva be + participio passato — conta ciò che accade, non chi lo fa | being worked · was designed · was suddenly suspended |
| Present perfect have/has + participio passato — un’azione passata che conta ancora adesso | has already been worked · have we ever seen · Have we detected |
| Frasi relative who / which + frase — un’informazione in più su una persona o una cosa | everyone who starts · speed, which is · collectors, which are |
Pronuncia a cui fare attenzione
Chi parla usa 23 contrazioni e forme ridotte, come we've, we're, you'd. Pronunciale nella forma breve, così come le senti.
- I suoni “th”: cathedral /kəˈθiːdɹəl/, theoretical /ˌθi.əˈɹɛt.ɪ.kəl/, thread /ˈθɹɛd/, thin /ˈθɪn/, tether /ˈtɛðəɹ/
- I suoni “sh” e “zh”: civilization /ˌsɪv.ɪ.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/, capture /ˈkæp.(t)ʃɚ/, shell /ʃɛl/, fiction /ˈfɪkʃən/, rotation /ɹoʊˈteɪʃən/
- Parole lunghe — attenzione all’accento: civilization /ˌsɪv.ɪ.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/, elevator /ˈɛləˌveɪtɚ/, technological /ˌtɛk.nəˈlɑ.dʒɪ.kəl/, humanity /hjuˈmænɪti/, theoretical /ˌθi.əˈɹɛt.ɪ.kəl/
I suoni difficili per chi parla italiano:
- /h/ — va soffiata, non è muta: humanity /hjuˈmænɪti/, harness /ˈhɑɹ.nəs/, habitat /ˈhæb.ɪ.tæt/
- Consonante finale — senza aggiungere una vocale dopo: orbit /ˈɔɹ.bɪt/, output /ˈaʊtpʊt/, strip /ˈstɹɪp/, thread /ˈθɹɛd/, desert /ˈdɛz.ɚt/
- /æ/ — più aperta della “e”: capture /ˈkæp.(t)ʃɚ/, galaxy /ˈɡæl.ək.si/, humanity /hjuˈmænɪti/, satellite /ˈsætəlaɪ̯t/, gravity /ˈɡɹævɪti/
Come esercitarsi con questo video
- Ascolta tutto il video una volta senza parlare e annota le parole che non conosci.
- Fai shadowing frase per frase a velocità normale, ripetendo ognuna finché il tuo ritmo coincide con quello di chi parla.
- Registrati e confronta con l’originale, facendo attenzione a parole come civilization, orbit, capture.
Cos'è la tecnica dello Shadowing?
Shadowing è una tecnica di apprendimento delle lingue supportata da studi scientifici, originariamente sviluppata per la formazione dei traduttori professionisti e resa popolare dal poliglotta Dr. Alexander Arguelles. Il metodo è semplice ma potente: ascolti un audio in inglese di madrelingua e lo ripeti immediatamente ad alta voce — come un'ombra che segue il parlante con un ritardo di solo 1–2 secondi. A differenza dell'ascolto passivo o degli esercizi di grammatica, lo shadowing costringe il tuo cervello e i muscoli della bocca a elaborare e riprodurre simultaneamente i modelli di discorso reale. La ricerca dimostra che migliora significativamente la precisione della pronuncia, l'intonazione, il ritmo, il discorso connesso, la comprensione dell'ascolto e la fluidità del parlato — rendendolo uno dei metodi più efficaci per la preparazione alla prova di speaking dell'IELTS e per la comunicazione reale in inglese.