Практика Shadowing: Law and Justice - Stoics and Epicureans in the Enlightenment - 19.3 The Scottish Enlightenment - Изучайте разговорный английский с YouTube
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The Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that has its roots in the second half of the 17th century,
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The Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that has its roots in the second half of the 17th century,
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especially in the thought of Thomas Hobbes,
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John Locke, and Isaac Newton,
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and that would stretch across the 18th century.
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A European-wide phenomenon that would include thinkers in Britain, France, Germany, and beyond.
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The age of reason, the age when thinkers would use their own minds to their fullest abilities,
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free of prejudice and superstition in the pursuit of truth.
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The Age of Enlightenment also saw the revival of interest in the Stoics
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and the Epicureans and their rival accounts of what the meaning of happiness was.
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This debate was stirred by the thought of Hobbes and Locke
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and it was particularly provoked by the work of Bernard Mandeville and his challenge to the idea of virtue,
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and it would rage across the 18th century.
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In our study of law and justice,
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we can look at two of the extreme poles of the Enlightenment,
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one deeply indebted to Stoicism,
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the other deeply indebted to Epicureanism,
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that would draw from and in many ways transform these ancient traditions of thought about the nature of human happiness,
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the purpose of life.
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And in this lesson we turn to the Scottish Enlightenment,
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the Enlightenment as it unravels in Scotland.
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Scotland was to be one of the primary centers,
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one of the most extraordinary centers of the Enlightenment,
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giving rise to figures like Adam Smith and David Hume.
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But the fountain of the Scottish Enlightenment.
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The first great figure of the Scottish Enlightenment was in fact from Ireland,
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a man named Francis Hutcheson.
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Hutcheson's thought is crucial for the development of 18th century thinking,
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especially about the nature of justice.
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Hutcheson's thinking would have tremendous influence on the Scottish thinkers after him and indeed would deeply influence 18th century America.
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Hutchison is indebted to the Stoic tradition.
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He reads the ancient Stoics.
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In fact, he was a translator of Marcus Aurelius' Meditations,
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the extraordinary diary kept by the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius,
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which is one of the great texts of Stoicism.
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The epigraphs to Hutcheson's works,
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like his fundamentally significant work of 1725,
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An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,
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carries an epigram that is a quote from Cicero.
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And Hutcheson belongs to the tradition that says that happiness is virtue.
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Hutchison's philosophy is an effort to defend the view that happiness is somehow fundamentally moral,
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that happiness is grounded in virtue,
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that happiness isn't simply pleasure simply pleasure.
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Now the possibility that happiness was no more than physical pleasure
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is deeply indebted to Thomas Hobbes and his view of humankind as a desirous creature that cannot be satiated.
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It's deeply indebted to the scientific vision of Isaac Newton,
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classical mechanics that says that things in nature don't have a natural telos.
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So Hutchison's effort to resurrect the idea that happiness is virtue must do
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so in a world that is very different from that of the ancient Stoics.
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It must do it in a world that has seen Hobbes and Locke and Newton.
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And his 1725 inquiry is his most important attempt to do so.
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Hutchison attempt to do so.
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Hutchison wants to say that happiness is virtue,
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and in doing so he offers an extraordinary vision of what the human being is.
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Now, Hutchison builds on Locke.
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Although the whole work is an effort to respond to a problem that comes out of Locke's philosophy,
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it is nevertheless through and through indebted to Locke's view of humanity,
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especially in his essay concerning human understanding,
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his empirical account of human knowledge as the result of the sum of our sensory perceptions.
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In the essay concerning human understanding,
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Locke says that humans have five senses.
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Hutchison wants to argue that virtue is real that virtue is natural.
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And so to do so he creates in fact a sixth and a seventh sense.
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And that's one way to think in shorthand about how Hutchison would defend the idea
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that virtue is a genuine kind of benevolence,
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not a kind of self-interest in disguise.
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And Hutchison is writing explicitly against Mandeville because he realizes
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that those who would argue that virtue is nothing but a form of self-interest in disguise that include Hobbes and Locke
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and more cynically, Mandeville, Hutcheson realizes that this is a profound problem
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and he wants to find a way of making virtue something more than just self-interest.
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And so to do so he invents a sixth and a seventh sense.
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The sixth sense is a perception of beauty.
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And he wants to say that we have some kind of faculty within us that perceives beauty,
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that is somehow innately part of our individual architecture as a human being
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and that leads us to appreciate beauty for its own sake.
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Even more important for a philosophy of justice is his seventh sense,
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what he would famously call the moral sense.
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And the idea of a moral sense would be fundamental to one strand of the Enlightenment
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that runs through the rest of the Scottish thinkers that is very important for thinkers like Thomas Jefferson.
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The idea of a moral sense.
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Hutchison thinks that human beings have a kind of natural morality that is in fact part of our makeup to be moral.
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And it's be moral.
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And it's different from Aristotle's idea that we are naturally moral.
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For Hutchison, it is a moral sense.
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And one of the remarkable features of Hutchison's 1725 inquiry is the way that he thinks about stories,
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about the power of narrative for human beings,
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and in and in a few ways.
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He says first think about the fact that human beings deeply care about stories.
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So he says imagine the Iliad,
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imagine any story, imagine Superman.
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We care, we get engaged.
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There's something natural, there's something innate about our ability to engage with stories.
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Now, why this works for Hutcheson,
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why this is so powerful,
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is because stories, fictional ones especially,
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don't have any impact on our material well-being.
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So when you go to a movie and you watch Superman,
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which this hadn't been invented in 18th century Scotland,
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but Hutcheson would like the example,
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everybody in the theater, who do they root for.
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They root for Superman.
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You don't root for Lex Luthor unless you're a sociopath.
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You root for the good guy.
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Why do you root for the good guy?
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Hutchison asks.
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Is it because of self-interest?
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Is it some kind of disguised self-interest?
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Is it somehow really out of your own self-love?
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Are you somehow benefiting from rooting for the good guys?
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No. That is your moral sense.
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He considers this a kind of true benevolence.
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It is a kind of love for the well-being of others.
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And in this he's deeply embedded to Christian thought as well.
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Jesus said, love your neighbor.
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And for Hutchison that is a deep idea,
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not just an emotion that I feel love,
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that I feel pleasure, but that I actually will for the well-being for the well-being of other human beings.
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That's what causes you to root for the good guy in a story, your moral sense.
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And he says look at children from the time they're tiny.
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They love stories.
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And you can sit down with a two-year-old,
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a three-year-old, and they can begin to perceive that there are good characters and eventually bad characters there's something natural,
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simply native, that makes them root for the good guys.
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That is the moral sense.
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And Hutchison argues that happiness isn't simply pleasure,
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that happiness isn't simply the sum of a kind of positive physical sensation.
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Happiness also includes the senses that we get from moral well-being or reactions to beauty.
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And so Hutchison begins to differentiate between different kinds of good,
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a kind of utility, self-interest,
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but also a kind of benevolence that activates our moral sense,
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or a kind of beauty that activates our aesthetic sensibilities.
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And for Hutchison, happiness is virtue,
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because happiness is a kind of deep,
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rich happiness that calls upon our moral sensibilities.
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Again, turning to narratives, he sees that happiness is a kind of life that requires a kind of achievement.
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And so Hutchison's philosophy would defend the idea that there is a virtue,
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there is a morality in and of itself that can be cultivated in human beings.
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And Hutchison's political thought is equally built on Locke's view of government.
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He believes that governments are created in a social contract to protect individual rights like life,
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liberty, and
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property and that the purpose of the state is the protection of these and that it's a fundamentally moral kind of purpose.
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Hutchison in his inquiry offers a statement that would offers a statement that would have a tremendous afterlife.
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He's the first person to articulate a formula.
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He says that act is moral which promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
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And as we'll see in future lessons,
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that slogan would be the core of a utilitarian outlook.
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But for Hutcheson, at the beginnings of the Scottish Enlightenment,
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his view of what happiness is isn't simply a kind of sum of pleasures.
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It is instead deeply rooted to a view of humanity as a kind of naturally moral creature.
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Контекст и фон
Эпоха Просвещения, философское движение, начало которому положили мыслители XVII века, такие как Томас Гоббс, Джон Локк и Исаак Ньютон, оказала значительное влияние на развитие идей о законе и справедливости. В этом контексте Фрэнсис Хатчесон, один из ключевых фигуры Шотландского Просвещения, предложил уникальную интерпретацию связи между счастьем и добродетелью. Его философия предполагает, что счастье связано не только с физическим наслаждением, но и с моральным благополучием, что обостряет дискуссию о сущности человеческой природы и целей жизни.
Топ 5 фраз для повседневного общения
- Счастье — это добродетель. (Happiness is virtue.)
- Мораль имеет естественное место в человеке. (Morality has a natural place in humanity.)
- Истории помогают понять добро и зло. (Stories help us understand good and evil.)
- Человек врожденно имеет моральное чувство. (A person innately has a moral sense.)
- Государство должно защищать права индивидов. (The state must protect individual rights.)
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