Shadowing Practice: How Did Humans Domesticate Corn? - Learn English Speaking with Video

בחר מצב תרגול

כל מצב פותח חדר תרגול במסך מלא.

431 משפטים

אם המשפטים קצרים או ארוכים מדי, לחץ על ערוך כדי להתאים אותם.

Look at this.

A single ear of corn.

Hundreds of kernels locked in perfect rows, wrapped in a husk so tight that nothing gets in or out without hands.

Human hands.

Now picture a scraggly wild grass growing on a rocky hillside in southwestern Mexico roughly 9 ,000 years ago.

It has maybe 10 seeds.

Each one is smaller than a grain of rice, sealed inside a rock -hard shell that you could not crack with your teeth if you tried.

The seeds are designed to scatter on the ground the moment they ripen.

You would walk past that plant a thousand times and never once think food.

And yet somebody looked at that grass and saw the future.

Because that grass, a weed called Teosinte, is corn.

Or rather, it became corn.

After the single most dramatic act of biological engineering in the history of life on Earth.

If you're hyped about this, smash the like button right now.

So how did humans take a useless wild grass with 10 tiny, inedible, rock -encased seeds and turn it into the most produced grain on the planet?

And why is this transformation so extreme that scientists argued for decades about whether it was even possible?

The answer starts in a river valley in Mexico.

And by the time we are done, you will understand why corn might be the greatest thing humans have ever created.

And also why it cannot exist without us.

Let's start with the wild plant.

Because if you saw Teocente, you would not believe it is related to corn.

Not even close.

Teocinte, specifically Zia maize subspecies Parviglumus, still grows wild today in the Balsas River Valley of southwestern Mexico in the states of Guerrero and Michoacan.

It is a bushy grass, about one to two meters tall, with multiple branching stalks shooting out in all directions.

Each stalk is tipped with a small tassel of male flowers.

So far, so grass, but here is the part that matters.

The ears of Teocinte, if you can call them that, are tiny spikes about five to seven centimeters long.

Five to twelve seeds.

That is it.

Each seed sits inside an individual cupule, a fruit case made of silica -reinforced gloom tissue so hard you would need a rock to crack it open.

And when the seeds are ripe, the entire ear shatters.

The rockies, the central axis holding the seeds together, breaks apart into individual segments, each carrying one encased seed and scatters them on the ground.

That is how Teosinte reproduces.

It throws its seeds away.

Now compare Compare that to a modern ear of corn, a single massive cob with 500 to 1000 naked kernels packed in tight rows, wrapped in layers of husk,

attached to a thick stalk that does not shatter, does not scatter, does not do anything at all without a human being pulling the husk off and planting those seeds by hand.

Modern corn is the only major cereal grain on earth that cannot survive in the wild.

If a cob falls on the ground, the kernels are packed so tightly that dozens of them germinate in a single clump.

Compete for the same tiny patch of soil, and kill each other.

Corn is, in the strictest biological sense, a human artifact.

A plant that exists only because we made it, and only because we keep planting it.

Every single year.

For 9 ,000 years.

Think about that for a second.

You're eating a plant that is entirely dependent on you for survival.

It did not volunteer.

It was conscripted.

And the wild grass it came from looks so different that for most of the 20th century, history, some of the best botanists on Earth refused to believe they were related.

So how did scientists finally figure out the connection?

The answer involves a Nobel Prize winner, 50 ,000 hybrid plants, and a decades -long argument that got personal.

In the 1930s, a geneticist named Paul Mangelsdorf at Harvard proposed what became known as the tripartite hypothesis.

He argued that corn descended from a now -extinct form of wild maize, not from teosinte.

He considered teosinte a hybrid between corn and another grass called trypsychum.

This was the dominant theory for decades.

Textbooks taught it, universities accepted it, and it was wrong.

The person who proved it wrong was George Beadle.

Beadle had won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958 for his work on gene function, the one gene, one enzyme hypothesis.

But his obsession with corn started much earlier, when he was a student of geneticist Rollins -Adams Emerson at Cornell in the late 1920s.

Beadle crossed Tiosinti with Korn and noticed something that Mangelsdorf's theory could not explain.

The hybrids were fully fertile every generation.

No sterility barriers.

No genetic incompatibility.

Tiosinti and Korn were not distant relatives.

They were the same species.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Beadle went further.

He grew over 50 ,000 second -generation hybrids from teocintimized crosses and categorized every single plant.

Some looked like teocinti.

Some looked like corn.

Most were somewhere in between.

And the ratios, the precise proportions of each type, were consistent with roughly four to five major genes controlling the key differences between the two plants.

Four to five genes.

The most extreme transformation in the history of plant domestication, from a wild grass with ten encased seeds to a towering stalk with a thousand naked kernels,

was driven by changes at a handful of genetic switches.

Beadle published his results.

Mangelsdorf pushed back.

The argument ran for years.

But Beadle was right, and the proof came from a new generation of geneticists who could read the actual DNA.

Here is where it connects to how the domestication actually happened.

Because those four to five genes are not abstractions.

They have names, and each one tells you something specific about what early humans were selecting for, even though they had no idea they were doing it.

The first gene is called TGA1 Teosinte Gloom Architecture structure.

This is the gene that controls the hard fruit case around each seed.

And teosyntate GA1 produces a thick, silica -reinforced shell that makes every kernel individually armored.

In corn, a single amino acid change in the TGA1 protein softens the gloom dramatically, leaving the kernel exposed, naked, and easy to eat.

That one mutation, identified by Huai Wang, John Dobley, and colleagues at the University University of Wisconsin in a 2005

paper published in Nature is the difference between a seed you cannot eat without a hammer

and a kernel you can pop into your mouth.

One amino acid.

The second gene is TB1, teosinte branched one.

This is the one that controls plant architecture.

In teosinte, TB1 expression is low, and the plant grows as a wild bush with multiple lateral branches, each one producing its own small ear and tassel.

In corn, a change in the regulatory region upstream of TB1, specifically the insertion of a transposable element called hopscotch,

roughly 60 kilobases upstream of the gene, cranks TB1 expression way up.

The result?

Lateral branches are suppressed.

The plant channels all its energy into a single main stalk with one or two large ears.

Instead of spreading its resources across a dozen tiny ears, the plant dumps everything into one.

That is the architectural blueprint of modern corn, encoded in a single regulatory switch.

John Dobley, Adrian Steck, and Luke Hubbard published this finding in Nature in 1997.

100

Think about why this matters for the story of how corn was made.

101

Early farmers did not know about genes.

102

They did not know about regulatory elements or transposable elements.

103

They just noticed that some teosinte plants were a little less branchy than others.

104

Maybe a little taller.

105

Maybe with slightly bigger seeds that were slightly easier to harvest.

106

And they saved those seeds.

107

They replanted those seeds.

108

They did it again the next season.

109

And the season after that.

110

And the season after that.

111

For hundreds of generations, the plants that humans chose to replant were the ones that happened to carry mutations at these specific loci.

112

Natural variation combined with human preference combined with time, that is the recipe.

113

And the result is the most extreme morphological transformation any domesticated plant has ever undergone.

114

The third gene is GT1 grassy tillers.

115

It works alongside TB1 to further suppress tillering, the production of additional shoots from the base of the plant.

116

In teosinte, the plant tillers constantly, producing new shoots from ground level.

117

In corn, GT1 shuts that down, one stalk, one focus.

118

Identified by Clinton Whipple and colleagues in 2011, published in nature genetics.

119

The fourth is Ra -1, Ramosa.

120

This one controls the branching pattern of the ear itself.

121

In Teosinte, the female inflorescence is a simple, loosely branched spike. In corn,

122

modifications at Ra -1 contribute to the highly condensed many -rhoded ear structure that packs hundreds of kernels onto a single cob, and there are others.

123

ZFL -2, which influences inflorescence development, Shugary, which affects kernel composition and starch quality.

124

Each one a small dial turned by millennia of human selection.

125

Betel's estimate of 4 to 5 major genes was remarkably close to what modern genetics confirmed.

126

The big leaps came from a few large effect mutations.

127

The fine -tuning came from hundreds of additional loci with smaller effects accumulated over thousands of years of patient, unconscious breeding.

128

Now here's the question that haunted archaeologists for decades.

129

When did this actually happen?

130

And where, specifically, did someone look at a teosinte plant and start the process? process.

131

The genetic answer came in 2002.

132

Yoshihiro Matsuoka, along with John Dobley and colleagues, published a study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

133

that analyzed microsatellite DNA from 264 maize varieties across the Americas and all known wild Teosinte taxa.

134

The conclusion was unambiguous.

135

One domestication event, one ancestral population.

136

Zia maize subspecies parviglumus growing in the central Balsa's river valley of southwestern Mexico.

137

Roughly 9 ,000 years ago.

138

Not multiple origins, not several independent experiments.

139

One group of people in one valley started saving seeds from one wild grass, and everything every ear of corn on every continent on earth descends from that decision.

140

The archaeological evidence agrees.

141

At a site called Jihuataxla shelter in the Balsa's valley, archaeobotanist Dolores Piperno of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute found maize starch grains

142

and phytoliths embedded in the surfaces of ancient grinding stones.

143

The date, approximately 8 ,700 years ago.

144

The starch grains were identifiable as maize, not teosinte, based on their size and morphology.

145

Someone in the Balsas Valley was already grinding domesticated or semi -domesticated corn nearly nine millennia ago.

146

And they were doing it in the exact region where the genetics predicted domestication would have occurred.

147

When the DNA and the dirt agree, you can be confident about the answer.

148

At Gila Naquit's Cave in Oaxaca, excavated by Kent Flannery of the University of Michigan,

149

researchers found the oldest known maize cobs directly radiocarbon dated to roughly 6 ,250 years ago.

150

Those cobs were tiny, about 2 centimeters long, but they were unmistakably corn, non -shattering.

151

Kernels attached to a solid rachis, the domestication syndrome was already locked in,

152

and Piperno and Flannery also recovered maize phytoliths from the same cave sediments dating to approximately 8 ,700 years ago,

153

consistent with the Xihuataxla evidence.

154

And at the Tahuacan Valley in Puebla,

155

Mexico, Richard McNeish's famous excavations in the 1960s at San Marcos Cave and Coxcatlin Cave uncovered something remarkable.

156

Thousands of ancient corn cobs, preserved in the dry cave conditions, spanning several thousand years of occupation.

157

The oldest cobs were about 2 .5 centimeters long, with eight rows of kernels.

158

The later cobs were progressively larger.

159

McNeish had found the domestication process frozen in stone, layer by layer.

160

A physical record of selection, written in cob size, readable by anyone who cared to look.

161

Think about what those early cobs represent.

162

They are small, absurdly small by modern standards.

163

A modern ear of corn is 20 to 30 centimeters long.

164

Those first domesticated cobs were the size of your thumb, but they were already transformed.

165

The hard fruit case was gone or softened.

166

The ratchets did not shatter.

167

The kernels stayed attached to the cob.

168

The fundamental architecture of corn?

169

The thing that makes it corn and not teosinte was already present 8 ,000 years ago.

170

Everything after that was refinement.

171

Making the ear bigger.

172

Adding more rows.

173

Increasing kernel size.

174

Pushing yields higher.

175

That refinement took another 8 ,000 years and is still going on today.

176

Now, here's a pattern interrupt.

177

Because the domestication story is only half the answer.

178

You can grow all the corn you want, but if you eat it wrong, it will slowly kill you.

179

This is the part that most histories of corn leave out completely, and it might be the most important part of the entire story.

180

Raw Corn Even domesticated corn is nutritionally incomplete in a specific and dangerous way.

181

Corn contains niacin, vitamin B3, but the niacin is chemically bound in a form called niacetin.

182

Your body cannot absorb it.

183

It passes through your digestive system untouched.

184

If corn is your primary food source and you eat it without processing, you will develop niacin deficiency.

185

The disease is called pellagra.

186

The symptoms progress through what doctors called the four Ds.

187

Dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death.

188

In that order.

189

The people of Mesoamerica solved this problem thousands of years before anyone understood the chemistry.

190

The solution is called nixtamalization.

191

The word comes from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs.

192

Nixtamale nextly meaning ashes.

193

Tamale meaning corn dough.

194

Here's the process.

195

You take dried corn kernels.

196

You soak them in water mixed with slaked lime, calcium hydroxide made from heating limestone or seashells, or you use wood ash lye.

197

You cook the kernels in this alkaline solution for hours.

198

Then you let them soak overnight.

199

The next day, you wash off the softened hulls, and what you have left is nixtamal.

200

You grind the nixtamal into masa, a soft, pliable dough that you can press into tortillas, wrap around fillings for tamales, or drop into soups as dumplings.

201

Every tortilla you have ever eaten started this way.

202

Now here's what that alkaline bath actually does at the molecular level, and why it matters so much.

203

The lime treatment breaks the chemical bonds holding niacin in its bound form, releasing it so your body can absorb it.

204

It improves the amino acid profile of the protein, increasing the bioavailability of lysine and tryptophan, which is itself a precursor to niacin.

205

It adds calcium to the diet.

206

It reduces aflatoxin contamination by up to 90%, a serious food safety benefit.

207

And it dissolves the hemicellulose in the hull, making the grain workable as dough.

208

Think about what the people who invented this actually figured out.

209

They did not know about vitamins.

210

They did not know about amino acids.

211

They did not know about niacin or tryptophan or aflatoxin.

212

They knew that when you cook corn in water with ash or ground up shells, the food is better.

213

People get less sick.

214

The dough works.

215

The tortillas hold together.

216

And they figured this out at least 3 ,500 years ago, probably with the Olmec, based on archaeological evidence of lime processing tools.

217

Then they passed it down, generation after generation, through the Maya, through the Aztec, through every Mesoamerican culture that depended on corn for survival.

218

They solved a biochemistry problem with empirical observation, thousands of years before Western science even recognized the problem existed.

219

And here's the proof of how important nixtamolization was.

220

When Europeans took corn back across the Atlantic after 1493, they took the grain but not the process.

221

Columbus brought maize to Spain after his first voyage.

222

French.

223

Within a century, corn had spread through the Mediterranean, into Italy, the Balkans, and the Ottoman Empire.

224

Portuguese traders introduced it to West Africa.

225

It reached China by the early 16th century.

226

Corn grew fast, yielded heavily, and could feed a lot of people on a small amount of land.

227

Governments loved it.

228

The poor ate it.

229

And then the pellagra started in northern Italy, where polenta made from untreated cornmeal became a staple of the peasant diet.

230

Pellagra became epidemic in the 18th century.

231

In Spain, in southern France.

232

In parts of the Balkans, entire regions where corn had replaced traditional grains saw waves of skin lesions, digestive failure, and mental deterioration.

233

In the early 20th century, Pellagro ravaged the American South.

234

Sharecroppers and mill workers who lived on cornbread and grits made from de -germed, un -nixtamalized cornmeal died by the thousands.

235

Joseph Goldberger, a physician at the U .S.

236

Public Health Service, proved through a series of studies between 1914 and 1929 that pellagra was a nutritional disease, not an infection, as most of the medical establishment believed at the time,

237

he could not identify the specific missing nutrient.

238

That took until 1937,

239

when biochemist Conrad Elvahem at the University of Wisconsin finally identified nicotinic acid niacin as the pellagra -preventing factor.

240

The Mesoamerican peoples who invented nixtamolization had solved this problem at least 3 ,000 years before Elvahem identified the molecule.

241

They did not need to know the chemistry, they just needed to cook the corn right.

242

And they did.

243

Now, here's where the story scales up.

244

Because corn did not just feed people, it built civilizations.

245

The Olmec, the earliest major civilization in Mesoamerica, rising around 1500 BC in the tropical lowlands of what is now Veracruz and Tabasco,

246

depended on maize as a primary calorie source.

247

The Maya, whose civilization flourished across what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador for more than 2 ,000 years, built their entire world on corn.

248

The Aztec, the Mexica, whose empire dominated central Mexico until the Spanish conquest in 1521,

249

ran a tribute system that demanded enormous quantities of maize from conquered provinces.

250

Every one of these civilizations was a corn civilization.

251

No maize, no surplus, no surplus, no cities, no cities, no empire.

252

The chain is direct, and in Maya cosmology, the connection between corn and humanity was not metaphorical.

253

It was literal.

254

The Popol Vuh, the creation narrative of the Kishe Maya, describes how the gods tried to make humans from several materials.

255

First mud.

256

It dissolved.

257

Then wood.

258

The wooden people had no souls, no understanding, and were destroyed.

259

Finally, the gods took white and yellow corn, ground it into dough, and shaped the first true human beings from masa.

260

Humans in the Maya understanding are made of corn.

261

Not figuratively, not poetically.

262

Materially, the substance of the human body is maize.

263

Think about why that belief makes sense to people who literally survived on corn.

264

You eat corn.

265

Your body turns corn into flesh, bone, blood, muscle.

266

In a very real, biochemical sense, you are rebuilt from the molecules in the corn you ate yesterday.

267

The Maya were not being mystical.

268

They were being observational now.

269

Let's talk about how corn spread across two continents.

270

Because after domestication in the Balsas Valley 9 ,000 years ago, corn did not stay put.

271

It moved.

272

And everywhere it went, it changed.

273

Within Mexico, corn spread from the Balsas lowlands into the highlands of central Mexico, where it encountered Highland Teosinte, Zea maize subspecies Mexicana.

274

The two interbred.

275

And that gene flow was not a problem.

276

It was an upgrade.

277

Highland Teosinte contributed genetic variants that helped corn tolerate colder temperatures, shorter growing seasons, and higher altitudes.

278

The Matsuoka 2002 study confirmed this admixture in the DNA.

279

Corn picked up hitchhiker genes as it climbed the mountains.

280

By about 7 ,600 years ago, maize had reached Panama.

281

By 5 ,500 years ago, it was on the coast of Ecuador.

282

It moved into South America, into the Andes, where indigenous farmers adapted it to high altitude conditions.

283

It moved into the Amazon Basin, where it was grown in river -edge gardens, different climates, different soils, different day lengths, different selection pressures.

284

And in each new environment, farmers chose the plants that did best and replanted those.

285

The result was explosive diversification.

286

Thousands of local land races, each adapted to its specific corner of the Americas.

287

Mays reached the American Southwest roughly 4 ,000 years ago.

288

It arrived in the eastern woodlands of North America by about 2 ,000 years ago, and it became a staple crop of the Mississippian cultures by around 900 to 1100 AD.

289

Cahokia, the massive pre -Columbian city in what is now southern Illinois with a peak population of perhaps 20 ,000 people,

290

the largest settlement in North America before European contact, was a corn city.

291

The mounds, the plazas, the social hierarchy, all of it rested on a foundation of maize agriculture.

292

And indigenous peoples across the Americas figured out something else about corn that took modern agronomists centuries to appreciate, the three sisters.

293

Maize, beans, and squash grown together in the same mound.

294

The corn stalk provides a structure for the bean vine to climb.

295

The beans fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil through symbiotic bacteria in their root nodules, fertilizing the corn.

296

The broad squash leaves shade the ground, suppressing weeds and retaining soil moisture.

297

Three plants, three complementary roles, one integrated system that maintains soil fertility, maximizes yields, and provides a nutritionally complete diet.

298

Corn gives you carbohydrates.

299

Beans give you protein and lysine, the amino acid that corn lacks.

300

Squash gives you vitamins and fats from the seeds.

301

Together, they are a complete food system.

302

Designed without any knowledge of soil science, nitrogen chemistry, or nutritional biochemistry designed by observation,

303

experimentation, and thousands of years of accumulated knowledge passed from parent to child.

304

Now here's where the story crosses the Atlantic.

305

And things get complicated fast.

306

Columbus brought maize to Spain in 1493.

307

The plant spread across Europe, Africa, and Asia within a century.

308

It grew in climates and soils where other grains struggled.

309

It yielded more calories per acre than wheat.

310

And governments across the world saw it as a solution to the problem of feeding growing populations on limited land.

311

Portuguese traders brought it to West Africa in the 16th century, where it spread rapidly through sub -Saharan Africa.

312

It reached China by the early 1500s, possibly through Portuguese maritime routes, and became an important crop on hilly,

313

marginal land where rice and wheat could not grow.

314

By the 18th century, maize was a global crop, a weed from a Mexican river valley reshaped by Mesoamerican farmers over thousands of years,

315

was now feeding people on every inhabited continent.

316

And then in the early 20th century, science turbocharged everything. In 1908,

317

a geneticist named George Harrison Shull at the Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor published research

318

that would reshape agriculture.

319

Shull demonstrated heterosis, hybrid vigor, in corn.

320

When he crossed two highly inbred lines of corn, plants that had been self -pollinated for generations until they were weak,

321

small, and low -yielding, the resulting offspring were explosively vigorous.

322

Taller, stronger, more productive than either parent.

323

More productive, in fact, than the open -pollinated varieties farmers had been growing for centuries.

324

The problem was practical.

325

The inbred parent lines were so feeble that they could not produce enough seed to be commercially useful.

326

Donald F.

327

Jones at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station solved this in 1918 with the double -cross method.

328

You cross two inbred lines to make one vigorous single -cross hybrid.

329

You cross two other inbred lines to make a second single -cross hybrid.

330

Then you cross those two single -cross hybrids.

331

The resulting double -cross seed is vigorous enough to produce commercially, and the plants it grows are enormously productive.

332

Henry A.

333

Wallace, who would later serve as U .S.

334

Secretary of Agriculture and Vice President under Franklin Roosevelt, saw the commercial potential.

335

In 1926, he founded the Hybrid Corn Company, later Pioneer Hybrid International, now part of Corteva Agrishcience.

336

It was one of the first commercial hybrid seed companies.

337

And the adoption of hybrid corn was one of the fastest technology transitions in agricultural history.

338

In 1930, less than 1 % of U .S corn acreage was planted to hybrid varieties.

339

By 1945, over 90 % was hybrid.

340

Yields roughly doubled between the 1930s and 1960s.

341

Think about what that means.

342

A plant that started as a wild grass with 10 seeds, domesticated 9 ,000 years ago in a Mexican river valley,

343

was now being engineered at the genetic level by industrial breeding programs, producing yields that would have been inconceivable to the Mesoamerican farmers who created it.

344

The same basic process, selecting which plants to reproduce, scaled up by science and capital.

345

And today, maize is the most produced grain on earth global production exceeds 1 .1 billion metric tons per year.

346

The United States alone produces roughly 350 to 380 million tons annually.

347

China and Brazil are the second and third largest producers.

348

And here's the part that surprises most people.

349

Most of that corn is not eaten by humans.

350

Roughly 36 % of U .S production goes to animal feed.

351

Another 34 % goes to ethanol production.

352

About 10 % is used for direct human food, including high fructose corn syrup, corn starch,

353

corn oil, and the thousands of processed food ingredients derived from corn

354

that show up in everything from soft drinks to bioplastics to adhesives.

355

Corn is not just a food crop.

356

It is an industrial feedstock, a raw material for the modern economy.

357

And it all started with a weed in a river valley.

358

Now let me give you one more detail that most people never hear.

359

Corn uses a form of photosynthesis called C4.

360

Most plants, including wheat, rice, and soybeans, use C3 photosynthesis.

361

The difference matters.

362

In C4 plants, carbon dioxide is first captured in specialized cells and concentrated around the enzyme Rubisco, which fixes the carbon into sugars.

363

This concentration step dramatically reduces photorespiration, a wasteful side reaction that costs C3 plants up to 30 % of their photosynthetic efficiency.

364

The result is that corn can produce more biomass per unit of water

365

and per unit of light than almost any other major crop.

366

In hot, sunny environments, corn outperforms wheat and rice by a wide margin.

367

That metabolic advantage is one of the reasons corn yields are so high.

368

The plant was already carrying superior photosynthetic hardware before humans ever touched it.

369

Domestication just gave it a stage to perform on.

370

And here's one more detail that ties the whole story together.

371

Popcorn.

372

You think popcorn is modern?

373

It is not.

374

The oldest known popcorn was found at the sites of Peridones and Huaca Prieta on the coast of Peru.

375

Tom Dillehay and colleagues reported in a 2012 paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

376

that corn cobs and kernels from those sites dated to approximately 4 ,700 BC, roughly 6 ,700 years ago.

377

Some of those kernels had the specific hard, moisture -sealed pericarp structure required for popping.

378

People on the coast of Peru were eating popcorn nearly 7 ,000 years ago.

379

The snack at the bottom of your movie theater bucket is older than the pyramids.

380

So, the answer.

381

How did humans discover and domesticate corn?

382

They found a wild grass, Teosinte, Zea maize subspecies Parviglumis, growing in the Balsas River Valley of southwestern Mexico roughly 9 ,000 years ago.

383

It was a bushy, branching weed with tiny ears of 5 to 12 seeds, each kernel sealed inside a rock -hard silica shell,

384

designed to shatter and scatter on the ground the moment it ripened.

385

It was not food.

386

It was barely worth noticing.

387

But someone noticed.

388

Someone saw that a few plants had kernels a little easier to crack.

389

A few ears that held together a little longer.

390

A few stalks that grew a little taller with a little less branching.

391

They saved those seeds.

392

They planted those seeds.

393

They did it again the next year, and the changes were driven by mutations at a handful of major genes.

394

TGA1, which softened the rock -hard fruit case.

395

TB1, which suppressed the lateral branches and concentrated the plant's energy into a single stalk.

396

GT1, which reduced tillering.

397

RA1, which reshaped the ear architecture.

398

Four to five major genetic switches, identified by John Dobley and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin over decades of painstaking work,

399

confirmed by the 2002 Matsuoka study that traced all of the world's corn back to that single valley.

400

One domestication, one place, one decision, repeated every harvest for 9 ,000 years.

401

They invented nixtamolization, soaking corn in alkaline water, to unlock the niacin that would otherwise stay trapped in the grain and eventually kill anyone who depended on it.

402

They built the Olmec, the Maya, and the Aztec civilizations on the calories corn provided.

403

They developed the Three Sisters, an integrated planting system that maintained soil fertility and provided a nutritionally complete diet.

404

They spread corn from Mexico to the Andes, from the Amazon to the Mississippi.

405

They created thousands of land races adapted to every climate and altitude across two continents.

406

And when the plant crossed the Atlantic in 1493, it fed Europe, Africa, and Asia,

407

though the Europeans who adopted it without nixtamolization paid the price in pellagra epidemics that lasted centuries.

408

Modern corn cannot drop its own seeds, cannot reproduce without a human hand, cannot survive a single generation on its own.

409

It is the most dependent, most modified, most thoroughly human -created organism on the planet.

410

A biological artifact that produces over a billion tons of grain every year, because 9 ,000 years ago, in a river valley in Mexico,

411

someone decided that a useless weed was worth another look.

412

And tonight, if you eat anything at all, there's a good chance corn is in it.

413

Not as an ear of corn on your plate.

414

As corn syrup in your soda, corn starch in your sauce, corn oil in your frying pan, Corn feed in the animal that became your dinner.

415

It is in the ethanol blended into the gasoline

416

that powered the car that took you to the store where you bought the food

417

that was grown on a farm where the rotation includes corn.

418

It is everywhere.

419

And every kernel in every field in every country on earth carries the DNA of a scraggly wild grass

420

that grew on a hillside in southwestern Mexico nine millennia ago.

421

The grass did not know it was going to become the most important plant on earth.

422

And the person who first saved its seeds did not know they were starting a chain of events

423

that would feed the world.

424

They were just trying to eat.

425

And from that, everything followed.

426

Now, speaking of things humans pulled out of the ground that should never have been food, I have another video on your screen right now about how did humans domesticate the potato,

427

a toxic lump buried in frozen Andean dirt that no rational person should have tried eating, but somehow became the fourth most important crop on Earth.

428

That story is going to change how you think about every french fry you have ever eaten.

429

Go watch it.

430

And if not, subscribe.

431

And drop a comment telling me what I should try next.

הורד אפליקציה

כל מה שאתה צריך כדי לדבר בשטף

הגיית AIציון לכל משפט

תרגול IPAשלוט בכל צליל

אוצר מיליםבנה את מאגר המילים שלך

משחק אוצר מיליםלמד תוך כדי משחק

סרוק QR

Download on theApp Store Get it onGoogle Play

FOR YOU

המלץ על סרטון

96 משפטים

Nature Is Speaking – Edward Norton is The Soil | Conservation International (CI)

IELTS PrepTOEFL PrepUniversity Students

Vocabulary and speaking notes for this lesson

This video has 431 sentences and 5125 words to shadow. The speech runs for 30:42. The speaker talks at a natural 167 words per minute, close to everyday conversation. Only 70% of the words are among the 3,000 most common in English, so the vocabulary is demanding.

Key vocabulary in this video

15 words from the video worth learning, with pronunciation and meaning:

Word	Pronunciation	Meaning
corn noun	/ˈkɔːn/	Any cereal plant (or its grain) that is the main crop or staple of a country or region.
seed noun	/siːd/	Any propagative portion of a plant which may be sown, such as true seeds, seed-like fruits, tubers, or bulbs.
gene noun	/d͡ʒiːn/	A theoretical unit of heredity of living organisms which may take several values and (in principle) predetermines a precise trait of an organism's form…
grass noun	/ɡɹɑːs/	Any plant of the family Poaceae, characterized by leaves that arise from nodes in the stem and leaf bases that wrap around the stem, especially those grown as…
grain noun	/ɡɹeɪn/	The harvested seeds of various grass food crops, especially wheat, maize, rye, barley, and rice.
roughly adverb	/ˈɹʌf.li/	In a rough manner; without kindness, softness, or gentleness.
hybrid noun	/ˈhaɪ.bɹɪd/	Offspring resulting from cross-breeding different entities, e.g. two different species or two purebred parent strains.
soil noun	/sɔɪl/	A mixture of mineral particles and organic material, used to support plant growth.
yield verb	/jiːld/	To give as a result or outcome; to produce or render.
kernel noun	/ˈkɝ.nəl/	The core, center, or essence of an object or system.
genetic adjective	/d͡ʒəˈnɛt.ɪk/	Relating to genetics or genes.
crop noun	/kɹɑp/	A plant, grown for it, or its fruits or seeds, to be harvested as food, livestock fodder, or fuel or for any other economic purpose.
farmer noun	/ˈfɑɹ.mɚ/	A person who works the land and/or who keeps livestock; anyone engaged in agriculture on a farm.
acid noun	/ˈæsɪd/	A sour substance.
ear noun	/ˈɪə̯/	The organ of hearing, consisting of the pinna or auricle, auditory canal, eardrum, malleus, incus, stapes and cochlea.

Phrasal verbs you will hear

Word	Meaning
figure out verb	To come to understand; to discover or find a solution; to deduce.
hold together verb	To cause to stay together.
leave out verb	To omit, to not include, to neglect to mention.
pass through verb	To go through, to travel through, to transit or lie across a place or from one place to another.
pick up verb	To lift; to grasp and raise.
push back verb	To refute or argue against a position or an accusation; to express one's own view on a situation.
wash off verb	To remove (or be removed) by washing; to clean off (dirt or the thing that it is besmirching) by washing.
wrap around verb	To move (text or other content) to the beginning of the next line when unable to fit it at the end of the current line.

Pronunciation to watch

The “th” sounds: thick /θɪk/, hypothesis /haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/, bath /bɑːθ/, theater /ˈθi(ə)tɚ/
The “sh” and “zh” sounds: shell /ʃɛl/, transformation /ˌtɹæns.fɔɹˈmeɪ.ʃən/, civilization /ˌsɪv.ɪ.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/, mutation /mjuˈteɪʃən/, squash /skwɔʃ/
Long words — get the stress right: architecture /ˈɑː.kɪˌtɛk.t͡ʃə/, agriculture /ˈæɡ.ɹɪˌkʌl.t͡ʃɚ/, biological /ˌbaɪ.əˈlɑ.d͡ʒɪ.kəl/, regulatory /ˈɹɛɡ.jʊ.lə.t(ɔː.)ɹi/, transformation /ˌtɹæns.fɔɹˈmeɪ.ʃən/

How to practise with this video

Listen to the whole video once without speaking and note the words you do not know.
Start at 0.75× speed, shadow it sentence by sentence, then go back to normal speed once it feels easy.
Record yourself and compare with the original, paying attention to words like corn, seed, gene.

דקדוק בסרטון הזה

המבנים שהדובר משתמש בהם הכי הרבה, עם המילים המדויקות מהסרטון:

מבנה	בסרטון
משפטי תנאי (Conditional sentences) if + clause, will/would + verb — תנאי ותוצאה שלו	if you saw Teocente, you would not · if you eat it wrong, it will slowly
סביל (Passive voice) be + past participle — הדגש הוא על מה שקורה, לא על מי שעושה את הפעולה	are designed · is tipped · was conscripted
משפטי זיקה (Relative clauses) who / which + clause — מידע נוסף על אדם או דבר	person who proved · anyone who cared · tryptophan, which is
הווה מושלם (Present perfect) have/has + past participle — פעולה שקרתה בעבר ועדיין יש לה חשיבות או השפעה עכשיו	have ever created · has ever undergone · have left

מהי טכניקת השאדואינג?

שאדואינג היא טכניקת למידת שפה מבוססת מדע שפותחה במקור להכשרת מתורגמנים מקצועיים ופופולרית על ידי הפוליגלוט ד"ר אלכסנדר ארגואלס. השיטה פשוטה אך עוצמתית: אתה מקשיב לאודיו באנגלית ילידית וחוזר עליו בקול רם מיד — כמו צל העוקב אחרי הדובר עם עיכוב של 1–2 שניות בלבד. בניגוד להאזנה פסיבית או תרגילי דקדוק, שאדואינג מכריח את המוח והשרירים בפה לעבד ולשחזר דפוסי דיבור אמיתיים בו זמנית. מחקרים מראים שזה משפר משמעותית את דיוק ההגייה, האינטונציה, הקצב, הדיבור המחובר, הבנת השמיעה ושטף הדיבור — מה שהופך אותו לאחת השיטות היעילות ביותר להכנה לIELTS Speaking ולתקשורת באנגלית בעולם האמיתי.

טכניקת Shadowing: קרא את המדריך המלא שלב אחר שלב →

Shadowing Practice: How Did Humans Domesticate Corn? - Learn English Speaking with Video

בחר מצב תרגול

הורד אפליקציה

Are GMOs Good or Bad? Genetic Engineering & Our Food

Why birds don't crash (and what humans can learn from them)

Are There Lost Alien Civilizations in Our Past?

The Agricultural Revolution: Crash Course World History #1

The banana is under threat

Why Don't Blue Whales Eat Fish?

World’s Most Advanced Artificial Egg Hatches Chicks

Lucy Cooke on: Bats

How do bees make honey?

Why is it Hot Underground?

Colossal Announces the De-Extinction of the Bluebuck Antelope