Pratique du Shadowing: Mixture of Experts Explained Visually: How Trillion-Parameter Models Actually Work - Apprendre l'anglais à l'oral avec la vidéo
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If you look at the architecture of recent open-weight models like DeepSeq,
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Kimi, GLM, and Quen, they all share one key design, mixture of experts.
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DeepSeq V3 has 671 billion parameters.
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Kimi K3 has 2.8 trillion.
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Yet for any single token, only a tiny fraction of those parameters actually run.
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That's the key idea behind mixture of experts.
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scale total model capacity dramatically without increasing active compute.
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The trick is replacing one giant monolithic network with multiple specialized subnetworks called experts.
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For each token, only a small subset of these experts is activated.
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This turns dense computation into sparse execution, giving you the intelligence of a massive model at the speed and cost of a much smaller one.
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By the end of this video, you'll understand how mixture of experts works, the main problems it creates during training, how it executes efficiently on GPUs,
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and how modern MOE models solve them.
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A transformer block has two main components, self-attention and the feed-forward network.
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Self-Attention handles token-to-token communication across the sequence.
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For example, when the model reads it, attention looks back at animal to gather context.
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Because every token compares against surrounding words, this step remains dense even in MOE models.
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After that, we pass the output through a residual connection, adding it back to the original hidden representation.
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Then, layer normalization keeps the combined representation stable before it's passed into the feedforward network.
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This part of the transformer works completely differently.
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It processes each token individually with no token interaction and holds over two-thirds of the model's total parameters.
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So this is where we want to make the computation sparse and why mixture of experts replaces the feedforward network.
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Let's take a single token, tired, and see how the feedforward network processes it.
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We'll call this hidden vector x.
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It has the same dimension as the model's hidden size, dModel.
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To expand it into the hidden layer, we multiply x by the up-projection matrix and add a bias vector.
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This projects the token into a higher dimensional space, called dff, the feed forward dimension.
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In the original transformer paper, dff is four times the model dimension, giving the layer more space to learn diverse features.
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Each row in the up-projection matrix corresponds to a single hidden neuron.
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You can think of each neuron as responding to a learned feature.
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When Vector X enters, the dot product measures how strongly the token aligns with that neuron's pattern.
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One neuron might detect emotional state, and another detects math concepts, and another detects grammar.
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When the word tired passes through, neurons detecting emotional state and fatigue fire strongly with large positive scores.
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Meanwhile, neurons looking for code syntax score negative or zero because those features aren't present in our input token.
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These raw scores then pass through a non-linear activation function.
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For simplicity, we'll use RELU, the activation function from the original transformer paper.
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RELU sets negative scores to zero, creating a sparse token-specific pattern.
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Finally, we project this activation pattern back to the model dimension using the down projection matrix and bias.
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This combines the active features into an updated token vector Y.
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Since tokens are independent, this step runs in parallel across the whole batch.
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To make the model memorize more facts and learn complex concepts, we can expand this hidden layer.
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Wider hidden layers give the network more neurons to detect a broader set of features.
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Here's the problem.
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In a dense feedforward network, every token multiplies against every parameter.
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Scale the parameter count by 10x and compute scales by 10x.
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That quickly gets too expensive.
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Notice what's happening.
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Activations are naturally sparse.
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A coding token lights up completely different neurons than a medical token.
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For any single token, most neurons sit at zero, so running the full dense matrix for every token wastes huge amounts of compute.
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So how do we exploit this sparsity?
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Think of it like a university.
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Imagine a university with dozens of specialized departments.
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If you have a question about quantum mechanics, you go to the physics department.
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If you have a question about medieval history, you go to the history department.
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You don't ask every department on campus.
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That would be completely inefficient.
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Language models work the same way.
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Different tokens only need a small subset of parameters.
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That's why we split the massive feedforward network into smaller subnetworks called experts.
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In real models, expert specialization isn't labeled by humans.
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It emerges automatically during training.
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But labeling them here makes the concept clear.
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Each token is dynamically routed to only the experts it needs.
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To decide which experts should process each token, we introduce a small neural network called the router.
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First, it takes the token's hidden representation coming directly from the residual stream
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and multiplies it by a learnable weight matrix to produce a routing logit for each expert.
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Softmax then turns these logits into probabilities across all experts.
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For instance, for this specific token, expert 2 receives an 80% routing score
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while expert 1 gets just three percent meaning expert two is far more relevant
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and will carry most of the weight in the final output
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once routed each expert independently processes the token to generate its
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own candidate output we then scale each of these outputs by
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the router's corresponding confidence score finally we sum them together to form the final result but
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if every expert processes every token we're still doing the full
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computation to solve this we introduce sparsity we keep only the top scoring experts
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and set the gating weights of all remaining experts to zero.
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That way, only chosen experts run, keeping active compute low even as total parameters scale.
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There are a few ways we can handle sparse routing.
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One direction is top one routing, pioneered by the switch transformer.
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This is the most aggressive masking strategy.
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We retain only the single highest scoring expert and zero out everything else.
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While incredibly efficient, it introduces a severe structural limitation.
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Real-world data is inherently messy and complex.
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A single token might encapsulate multiple concepts simultaneously, such as mathematics and programming.
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Forcing that token through a single expert severely bottlenecks the model's expressive capacity.
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To overcome this, we use top-k routing, where the router selects the top-k experts for each token.
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This has become the standard paradigm for modern large language models.
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For instance, MixedRoll routes to the top two experts, while DeepSeqv3 routes to the top eight experts.
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This lets the token combine insights from multiple experts at once, blending their outputs based on the router's confidence.
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While it uses slightly more compute than top one routing, it is far more efficient than running the full dense network.
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But training these networks is where things get tricky.
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The router initializes with random weights, so its early routing decisions are essentially random.
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Suppose Expert 1 happens to receive slightly more tokens.
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Under backpropagation, an expert only receives gradient updates when tokens are routed to it.
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If it sits idle, its parameters never update and it learns nothing.
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Because Expert 1 processes more tokens, it accumulates more gradient updates,
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so it learns faster and becomes better at minimizing the loss than its peers.
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The router quickly learns that routing to Expert 1 yields a lower error, so in subsequent forward passes, it assigns even more tokens to it.
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This creates a positive feedback loop called Expert Collapse.
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As training runs, the router keeps picking the same expert.
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Soon, one expert handles everything while the rest stay idle, wasting most of the experts we added.
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But we can see this clearly in a deep seek ablation study.
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The expert shown in green gradually takes over until it's receiving almost all of the tokens.
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This happens because standard router training only optimizes the language modeling loss,
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the cross entropy loss that measures how well the model predicts the MEX token.
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But this loss doesn't care how tokens are distributed across the experts.
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One simple idea is to add another loss function, the auxiliary load balancing loss.
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To calculate this balancing penalty, we first need to measure the actual token distribution.
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For each expert, we simply take the number of tokens routed to it
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and divide it by the total tokens in the batch.
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This gives us the token fraction, a measure of how much traffic that specific expert handled.
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Now we look at the router's confidence.
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We compute the average routing probability for that same expert across the entire batch.
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This tells us, on average, how strongly the router favored this expert, regardless of whether the token was actually assigned to it.
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We then multiply this actual token fraction by the average routing probability for each expert.
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Summing these products across all experts and scaling by the total number of experts gives us our auxiliary load balancing loss.
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Intuitively, this penalizes the model when the router is highly confident in an expert that is already receiving too much traffic.
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In an ideal scenario where routing is perfectly balanced, say every expert receives 25% of the traffic,
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the auxiliary loss evaluates to its theoretical minimum of 1.
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Conversely, in a collapsed state where a single expert hoards all the tokens,
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the loss spikes significantly, sending a strong penalty signal to correct the router's behavior.
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During training, we combine these two objectives.
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Our total loss becomes the primary language modeling plus the auxiliary load balancing loss scaled by a hyperparameter alpha.
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We are now simultaneously teaching the model to predict accurately and to utilize its experts more evenly.
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This alpha parameter controls the trade-off between prediction quality and expert utilization.
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We keep it small, typically around 0.01,
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so the language loss still dominates while the router gets a small push to distribute tokens more evenly across the experts.
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And if we look at the results here, we can see the difference.
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Without the auxiliary loss, the routing becomes concentrated on a few experts.
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With the balancing penalty, the tokens are distributed much more evenly across the experts.
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The auxiliary loss effectively stops expert collapse, but it introduces a new problem into to our objective function.
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The network now has to balance two conflicting goals.
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Because these gradients optimize different objectives, they produce opposing parameter updates during back propagation.
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The primary cross entropy loss produces gradients that optimize the router for prediction accuracy.
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At the same time, the auxiliary loss produces gradients that encourage a more balanced distribution of tokens across the experts.
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Because these gradients optimize conflicting objectives, they produce opposing parameter updates during back propagation,
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which degrades routing quality and ultimately hurts final model performance.
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To avoid this gradient interference, DeepSeq V3 removes the auxiliary loss from the training objective.
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It enforces load balancing by applying a dynamic bias directly to the routing scores during the forward pass.
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Standard routers calculate a routing score for each expert by taking the dot product between the token's hidden representation
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and the corresponding router weight vector.
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DeepSeq V3 uses a different gating mechanism.
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It drops the softmax entirely and applies a sigmoid to the router's output, producing an independent gating score for each expert.
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Then, before top case election, it adds a dynamic bias to each expert's gating score.
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Here's the important part.
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This isn't a normal learn parameter.
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Unlike a typical bias, it isn't updated through back propagation.
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Instead, DeepSeq updates it directly after each training step using a simple heuristic.
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The bias adjustment is directly proportional to the load error, the difference between the target load and the expert's actual load for that batch.
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If an expert's actual load is higher than the target load, its bias is decreased by a small step size,
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making it less likely to receive tokens in the next batch.
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On the flip side, if an expert's actual load is below the target load, its bias is increased by that step size,
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making it more likely to receive tokens until the distribution becomes balanced.
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While DeepSeq keeps bias updates separate from backpropagation, the logic is heuristic.
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Add or subtract the fixed step based on observed expert load.
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This works fine for smaller models, but moving toward extreme sparsity like Kimi K3, this step size is way too slow.
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Moonshot AI's recently released open-weight model has nearly 3 trillion parameters.
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Kimi K3 scales to 896 experts, yet activates only 16 of them for any given token.
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This means each expert is expected to receive less than 2% of the tokens.
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At this level of sparsity, a fixed bias update might not react quickly enough when the token distribution changes.
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For example, if the update step is too small, an inactive expert could take thousands of iterations before its bias is high enough to make the top 16.
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Until then, it gets very few or even no tokens, so it barely gets a chance to learn.
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On the flip side, if the step size is too large, the bias overcorrects.
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An expert can quickly go from receiving too few tokens to receiving too many, causing the routing decisions to become unstable.
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Kimi K3 avoids these incremental updates altogether.
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Instead, it computes the bias directly from the token distribution in each batch.
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Here's a simple example.
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Take a batch of 1,000 tokens and sort their scores from lowest to highest.
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Since each expert handles 2% of the tokens, we place the cutoff at the 98th percentile.
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Let's say that cutoff comes out to positive 1.2.
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This is the expert's quantile.
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We subtract it from the per-token cutoff, alpha, to get the expert's bias.
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Because top-k routing depends only on relative ranking, we can set alpha to zero without changing which experts are selected.
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The bias then effectively shifts each expert's scores according to its own token distribution, helping align the experts to the same target workload.
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Since an overutilized expert tends to produce higher routing scores, its 98th percentile is also higher, in our example, positive 1.2.
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Subtracting this positive quantile gives the expert a negative bias.
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This applies a targeted penalty to curb its token allocation.
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On the flip side, an underutilized expert has lower scores, giving it a negative quantile, like negative 3.
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Subtracting this negative quantile gives the expert a positive bias, boosting its token allocation.
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So, unlike DeepSeq's reactive approach, which updates the bias through small,
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fixed steps, KimiK3 computes the required bias directly from the batch score distribution in a single step.
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In large models like KimiK3, all the experts can't fit on a single GPU, so they're spread across multiple GPUs.
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When a token is routed to an expert, that token has to be sent to the GPU where that expert is located.
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The bias helps balance this traffic across the GPUs.
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Once the routing decision is made, the bias is discarded.
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The final mixture weights are computed using the original scores before the bias was added, keeping output representations unaffected.
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This lets the router balance the workload without changing what each expert learns.
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But as models scale up, another problem arises.
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training stability.
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Since routing decisions rely on softmax, if raw logits grow too large, the calculation quickly becomes unstable.
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The router multiplies the token input by its weight matrix, producing raw routing logits for each expert.
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Softmax turns these logits into probabilities by exponentiating them and dividing by their sum.
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That denominator is the normalization term, z of x.
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As training progresses, the router becomes more confident, driving logits higher.
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Say a logit reaches 12.
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To save memory and compute, LLMs use mixed precision training, like FP16, where numbers are capped at 65,504.
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Exponentiating a logit of 12 produces over 160,000, exceeding FP16's limit.
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This causes Z of X to overflow to infinity, making softmax produce NAN and destabilizing training.
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To prevent this during the forward pass, we subtract the constant C from every logit before exponentiating.
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Softmax is translation invariant, so this shift doesn't alter the output probabilities at all.
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In practice, C is the maximum logit.
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Subtracting it shifts the highest logit to zero.
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This keeps every exponentiated value between zero and one, preventing overflow without changing routing decisions.
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But logit shifting only fixes the forward pass.
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The underlying logits can still grow over time, making optimization increasingly unstable.
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To solve this, we introduce router Z loss.
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This directly penalizes the normalization term Z of X to keep logic growth firmly under control.
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Because the normalization term Z of X grows exponentially, we first take its logarithm to compress it onto a numerically stable scale.
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We then square it to guarantee a strictly positive loss that aggressively penalizes massive outliers.
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Substituting Z of X gives the complete router Z loss formula.
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Z loss acts as a soft penalty, only stepping in if raw logits grow excessively large.
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Integrating Z loss into the total objective combines task loss, load balancing penalty, and router Z loss.
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The hyperparameter beta controls the penalty strength.
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If it's too small, the logits can still grow too large.
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If it's too large, the penalty begins to interfere with the model's main training objective.
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The routing problem is mostly solved.
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The challenge now is
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that we can't just run an MOE model on a GPU the same way we run a dense model.
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GPUs are built for massive parallelism, so running experts one by one leaves most of the hardware idle.
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To fix this, we run all experts together using batched matrix multiplication.
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Under the hood, each expert is simply a standard feedforward network, just size smaller so multiple experts can run efficiently.
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Tokens first pass through the up projection layer, followed by the activation function, and finally through the down projection layer to produce the final output.
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We'll focus on the up projection layer, where the primary compute bottleneck occurs.
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We can run them all at once by combining their weight matrices into a single block diagonal matrix.
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We call this expert capacity.
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Under top 1 routing, that's just total tokens divided by the number of experts, scaled by our capacity factor.
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Say we have a batch of 75 tokens routed across 3 experts.
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At a capacity of 1, we allocate space for 25 tokens per expert.
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But routing is dynamic and skewed.
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In our example, Expert 1 gets 35 tokens, while Experts 2 and 3 receive 25 and 20 tokens.
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While Expert 1 overshoots its capacity, Expert 3 only gets 20 tokens, leaving 5 slots completely empty.
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That's the biggest drawback of fixed allocation.
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Since Expert 1 only has room for 25 tokens, the remaining 10 tokens overflow.
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These excess tokens are dropped and bypass expert computation, flowing directly to the residual stream, which can degrade overall model performance.
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One quick workaround is to increase the capacity factor.
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Now, Expert 1 can handle all 35 tokens without dropping any.
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The catch is that batched matrix multiplication requires uniform shapes,
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so experts 2 and 3 must also allocate 35 rows even though they only have 25 and 20 tokens.
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These extra rows are just zero padding, wasting GPU memory and compute.
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So whether it's dropping tokens or wasting padding, both problems stem from the exact same issue,
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forcing every expert matrix into identical shapes.
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To fix this bottleneck without dropping tokens or wasting memory, MegaBlocks introduces non-padded block-sparse matrix multiplication.
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With MegaBlocks, matrix dimensions don't have to be uniform.
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It represents both the input and weight matrices as variable-sized blocks that match each expert's actual token count.
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35 tokens for expert 1, 25 for expert 2, and 20 for expert 3.
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Notice how all that wasted padding is completely gone.
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We get the exact same output without dropping tokens or wasting GPU memory.
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To execute these variable-sized token batches efficiently, MegaBlocks uses block tiling.
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It partitions each expert's workload into small, fixed-sized blocks.
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These blocks are sized to match GPU hardware tiles, typically 16 or 32 tokens per block.
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Take Expert 1.
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Its 35 tokens are split into two full 16-token blocks plus a partial block with three tokens.
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Expert 2's 25 tokens are split into two blocks.
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Expert 3's 20 tokens also form two blocks, giving us seven uniform blocks in total.
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The GPU no longer sees unbalanced experts.
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It processes these seven uniform blocks in one continuous stream.
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The only remaining padding occurs inside partial blocks.
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We only have to pad a few entries inside one tile, making the overhead negligible.
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But there's another way to handle load balancing altogether.
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Instead of having tokens choose their experts, ExpertChoice flips this around.
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The experts choose which tokens they process.
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As before, multiplying the input tokens by the routing weight matrix yields the routing score matrix.
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Under traditional token choice routing, each token evaluates its row to identify its top-scoring experts.
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Expert choice completely reverses this logic.
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Instead, each expert evaluates its column and picks the tokens with the highest routing scores.
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Say we take eight tokens and four experts at a capacity factor of 1.0.
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Each expert gets a fixed capacity of two tokens and picks the top two tokens from its column.
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For example, expert one evaluates the first column and picks tokens 1 and 3.
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Similarly, experts 2, 3, and 4 evaluate their columns and select their top two tokens.
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By assigning an equal number of tokens to every expert, load balancing is built into the architecture, eliminating the need for auxiliary losses.
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Computation also adapts to each token.
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Important tokens can be selected by multiple experts, while simpler tokens are selected once or skipped entirely.
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But expert choice still relies on hard top-case selection.
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A token is either picked or ignored.
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Soft MOE removes that boundary completely.
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Instead of assigning discrete tokens to experts, every expert receives a soft, weighted blend of the entire batch,
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making routing fully differentiable, with zero drop tokens.
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For example, expert 1 doesn't get token A by itself.
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It gets a mix of token A, token B, token C, and every other token in the batch, with each one contributing by a different amount.
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Expert 1 processes that mixture, and the output is distributed back to each token based on its original contribution.
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Another direction is heterogeneous MOE, where experts don't all have to be the same size.
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Some experts are larger and more capable, while others are lightweight.
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The router can send complex tokens to the larger experts and simpler tokens to the smaller ones, using the model's parameters more efficiently.
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So far, we've seen how standard routing works well, but modern architectures push this idea further.
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They separate the knowledge that's useful across many tokens into a shared pathway, while making the routed experts more specialized.
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DeepSeq keeps a shared expert active for every token, bypassing the router.
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It handles common patterns and knowledge, while the routed experts can focus on more specific knowledge.
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It also changes the size of those routed experts.
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Instead of using a few large experts, it splits them into smaller micro-experts, a technique called fine-grained expert segmentation.
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This vastly expands the number of possible expert combinations.
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With 16 large experts selecting 2, there's 120 possible combinations, but splitting
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that capacity into 64 smaller experts selecting 8 keeps compute the same while combinations jump to over 4 billion,
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giving the router much more flexibility.
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If we look at DeepSeq's ablation study,
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combining shared experts with fine-grained segmentation consistently improves benchmark performance without increasing inference cost.
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Moonshot AI also uses shared experts in Kimi K3, running two shared experts alongside its standard routed experts.
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With 896 standard experts and two shared experts, Kimi K3 reaches 2.8 trillion total parameters.
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Yet, for each token, it only activates 16 routed experts, using a fraction of its compute, while shared experts handle common language patterns.
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Now let's put this routing into a full transformer layer.
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First we turn our input text into tokens.
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Each token gets mapped to an ID, and an embedding table converts those IDs into vectors.
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Together these form our input matrix X.
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We pass matrix X into multi-head self-attention, letting each token gather context from all the others, producing our context-aware matrix A.
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Next, we add the original input X directly back to A through a skip connection to keep training stable.
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Then, layer normalization stabilizes the values, giving us our normalized matrix.
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After attention comes the feedforward network.
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In a standard transformer, this is one massive set of weights.
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If this block has 48 billion parameters, every token must run through all 48 billion parameters.
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It's brute force.
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With a sparse MOE layer, we split that block into 8 6 billion parameter experts.
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Using top two routing, each token only activates two experts, running through 12 billion parameters instead of all 48.
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The router evaluates each token and picks its top experts.
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For example, HART routes to experts A and D, while PUMPs goes to B and E.
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Every other token follows the same path.
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Each token picks its top two experts, weights their outputs by the router scores, and combines them into matrix Y.
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Then, a second skip connection adds Y back to our normalized matrix.
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Finally, another layer normalization gives us matrix Z, which feeds straight into the next layer.
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And that's how an MOE transformer layer works.
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This is how we scale to trillion parameter models while only spending a fraction of the compute per token.
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Thanks for watching.
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If you like this video, please like and subscribe, and I'll see you in the next video.
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Vocabulaire et conseils d’expression pour cette leçon
Cette vidéo contient 321 phrases et 4175 mots à répéter en shadowing. La partie parlée dure 29:02. Le locuteur parle à un rythme régulier d’environ 144 mots par minute, confortable pour le shadowing. Seuls 69 % des mots font partie des 3 000 mots les plus courants en anglais, le vocabulaire est donc exigeant.
Vocabulaire clé de cette vidéo
15 mots moins courants de la vidéo, avec leur prononciation et leur sens :
- token /ˈtoʊkən/ (nom) — symbole. Something serving as an expression of something else.
- bias /ˈbaɪ.əs/ (nom) — préjugé, parti-pris. Inclination towards something.
- parameter /pəˈɹæm.ə.tɚ/ (nom) — paramètre. A value kept constant during an experiment, equation, calculation, or similar, but varied over other versions of the experiment, equation, calculation, etc.
- layer /ˈleɪ̯ɚ/ (nom) — couche. A single thickness of some material covering a surface.
- batch /bæt͡ʃ/ (nom) — fournée. The quantity of bread or other baked goods baked at one time.
- output /ˈaʊtpʊt/ (nom) — sortie. Production; quantity produced, created, or completed.
- penalty /ˈpɛn.əl.ti/ (nom) — penalisation. A legal sentence.
- objective /ɒbˈd͡ʒɛk.tɪv/ (nom) — objectif, but. A material object that physically exists.
- combine /kəmˈbaɪn/ (verbe) — combiner. To bring (two or more things or activities) together; to unite.
- introduce /ˌɪntɹəˈdus/ (verbe) — présenter. To cause (someone) to be acquainted (with someone else).
- mixture /ˈmɪkst͡ʃɚ/ (nom) — mélange. The act of mixing.
- dense /ˈdɛns/ (adjectif) — dense. Having relatively high density.
- projection /pɹəˈd͡ʒɛkʃən/ (nom) — saillie. Something which projects, protrudes, juts out, sticks out, or stands out.
- vector /ˈvɛktɚ/ (nom) — vecteur. A directed quantity, one with both magnitude and direction; the signed difference between two points.
- fraction /ˈfɹæk.ʃən/ (nom) — fraction. A part of a whole, especially a comparatively small part.
Les verbes à particule que vous entendrez
- look at (verbe) — regarder. To observe or watch.
- pass through (verbe) — traverser. To go through, to travel through, to transit or lie across a place or from one place to another.
- rely on (verbe) — se fier à, compter sur. To be confident in.
- look for (verbe) — chercher, rechercher. To seek.
- step in (verbe) — remplacer, substituer. To act as a replacement or substitute.
- take over (verbe) — reprendre. To assume control of something, such as a business or enterprise, and sometimes by force.
Prononciation à surveiller
Le locuteur utilise 20 contractions et formes réduites, comme doesn't, don't, isn't. Prononcez-les sous leur forme courte, telles que vous les entendez.
- Les sons « th »: gather /ˈɡæðɚ/, mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, altogether /ɔl.tuˈɡɛð.ɚ/
- Les sons « sh » et « zh »: projection /pɹəˈd͡ʒɛkʃən/, fraction /ˈfɹæk.ʃən/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, dimension /daɪˈmɛn.ʃən/, activation /ˌæktəˈveɪʃən/
- Mots longs — placez bien l’accent: parameter /pəˈɹæm.ə.tɚ/, auxiliary /ɔɡˈzɪl.(jə).ɹi/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, activation /ˌæktəˈveɪʃən/, combinations /kɑmbɪˈneɪʃənz/
Comment s’entraîner avec cette vidéo
- Écoutez la vidéo en entier une fois sans parler et notez les mots que vous ne connaissez pas.
- Répétez phrase par phrase à vitesse normale, en reprenant chacune jusqu’à ce que votre rythme corresponde à celui du locuteur.
- Enregistrez-vous et comparez avec l’original, en faisant attention à des mots comme token, bias, parameter.
La grammaire de cette vidéo
Les structures que le locuteur utilise le plus, avec les mots exacts de la vidéo :
| Structure | Dans la vidéo |
|---|---|
| Voix passive be + participe passé — l’accent est mis sur ce qui arrive, pas sur qui le fait | is activated · isn't labeled · are routed |
| Present perfect have/has + participe passé — une action passée qui compte encore maintenant | has become · we've seen |
Qu'est-ce que la technique du Shadowing ?
Le Shadowing est une technique d'apprentissage des langues fondée sur la science, développée à l'origine pour la formation des interprètes professionnels. Le principe est simple mais puissant : vous écoutez de l'anglais natif et le répétez immédiatement à voix haute — comme une ombre suivant le locuteur avec un décalage de 1 à 2 secondes. Les recherches montrent une amélioration significative de la précision de la prononciation, de l'intonation, du rythme, des liaisons, de la compréhension orale et de la fluidité.