Shadowing Practice: Mixture of Experts Explained Visually: How Trillion-Parameter Models Actually Work - Learn English Speaking with Video
Creating lesson...
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If you look at the architecture of recent open-weight models like DeepSeq,
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Kimi, GLM, and Quen, they all share one key design, mixture of experts.
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DeepSeq V3 has 671 billion parameters.
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Kimi K3 has 2.8 trillion.
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Yet for any single token, only a tiny fraction of those parameters actually run.
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That's the key idea behind mixture of experts.
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scale total model capacity dramatically without increasing active compute.
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The trick is replacing one giant monolithic network with multiple specialized subnetworks called experts.
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For each token, only a small subset of these experts is activated.
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This turns dense computation into sparse execution, giving you the intelligence of a massive model at the speed and cost of a much smaller one.
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By the end of this video, you'll understand how mixture of experts works, the main problems it creates during training, how it executes efficiently on GPUs,
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and how modern MOE models solve them.
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A transformer block has two main components, self-attention and the feed-forward network.
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Self-Attention handles token-to-token communication across the sequence.
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For example, when the model reads it, attention looks back at animal to gather context.
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Because every token compares against surrounding words, this step remains dense even in MOE models.
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After that, we pass the output through a residual connection, adding it back to the original hidden representation.
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Then, layer normalization keeps the combined representation stable before it's passed into the feedforward network.
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This part of the transformer works completely differently.
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It processes each token individually with no token interaction and holds over two-thirds of the model's total parameters.
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So this is where we want to make the computation sparse and why mixture of experts replaces the feedforward network.
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Let's take a single token, tired, and see how the feedforward network processes it.
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We'll call this hidden vector x.
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It has the same dimension as the model's hidden size, dModel.
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To expand it into the hidden layer, we multiply x by the up-projection matrix and add a bias vector.
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This projects the token into a higher dimensional space, called dff, the feed forward dimension.
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In the original transformer paper, dff is four times the model dimension, giving the layer more space to learn diverse features.
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Each row in the up-projection matrix corresponds to a single hidden neuron.
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You can think of each neuron as responding to a learned feature.
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When Vector X enters, the dot product measures how strongly the token aligns with that neuron's pattern.
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One neuron might detect emotional state, and another detects math concepts, and another detects grammar.
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When the word tired passes through, neurons detecting emotional state and fatigue fire strongly with large positive scores.
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Meanwhile, neurons looking for code syntax score negative or zero because those features aren't present in our input token.
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These raw scores then pass through a non-linear activation function.
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For simplicity, we'll use RELU, the activation function from the original transformer paper.
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RELU sets negative scores to zero, creating a sparse token-specific pattern.
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Finally, we project this activation pattern back to the model dimension using the down projection matrix and bias.
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This combines the active features into an updated token vector Y.
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Since tokens are independent, this step runs in parallel across the whole batch.
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To make the model memorize more facts and learn complex concepts, we can expand this hidden layer.
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Wider hidden layers give the network more neurons to detect a broader set of features.
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Here's the problem.
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In a dense feedforward network, every token multiplies against every parameter.
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Scale the parameter count by 10x and compute scales by 10x.
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That quickly gets too expensive.
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Notice what's happening.
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Activations are naturally sparse.
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A coding token lights up completely different neurons than a medical token.
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For any single token, most neurons sit at zero, so running the full dense matrix for every token wastes huge amounts of compute.
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So how do we exploit this sparsity?
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Think of it like a university.
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Imagine a university with dozens of specialized departments.
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If you have a question about quantum mechanics, you go to the physics department.
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If you have a question about medieval history, you go to the history department.
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You don't ask every department on campus.
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That would be completely inefficient.
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Language models work the same way.
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Different tokens only need a small subset of parameters.
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That's why we split the massive feedforward network into smaller subnetworks called experts.
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In real models, expert specialization isn't labeled by humans.
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It emerges automatically during training.
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But labeling them here makes the concept clear.
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Each token is dynamically routed to only the experts it needs.
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To decide which experts should process each token, we introduce a small neural network called the router.
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First, it takes the token's hidden representation coming directly from the residual stream
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and multiplies it by a learnable weight matrix to produce a routing logit for each expert.
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Softmax then turns these logits into probabilities across all experts.
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For instance, for this specific token, expert 2 receives an 80% routing score
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while expert 1 gets just three percent meaning expert two is far more relevant
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and will carry most of the weight in the final output
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once routed each expert independently processes the token to generate its
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own candidate output we then scale each of these outputs by
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the router's corresponding confidence score finally we sum them together to form the final result but
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if every expert processes every token we're still doing the full
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computation to solve this we introduce sparsity we keep only the top scoring experts
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and set the gating weights of all remaining experts to zero.
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That way, only chosen experts run, keeping active compute low even as total parameters scale.
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There are a few ways we can handle sparse routing.
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One direction is top one routing, pioneered by the switch transformer.
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This is the most aggressive masking strategy.
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We retain only the single highest scoring expert and zero out everything else.
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While incredibly efficient, it introduces a severe structural limitation.
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Real-world data is inherently messy and complex.
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A single token might encapsulate multiple concepts simultaneously, such as mathematics and programming.
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Forcing that token through a single expert severely bottlenecks the model's expressive capacity.
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To overcome this, we use top-k routing, where the router selects the top-k experts for each token.
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This has become the standard paradigm for modern large language models.
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For instance, MixedRoll routes to the top two experts, while DeepSeqv3 routes to the top eight experts.
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This lets the token combine insights from multiple experts at once, blending their outputs based on the router's confidence.
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While it uses slightly more compute than top one routing, it is far more efficient than running the full dense network.
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But training these networks is where things get tricky.
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The router initializes with random weights, so its early routing decisions are essentially random.
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Suppose Expert 1 happens to receive slightly more tokens.
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Under backpropagation, an expert only receives gradient updates when tokens are routed to it.
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If it sits idle, its parameters never update and it learns nothing.
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Because Expert 1 processes more tokens, it accumulates more gradient updates,
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so it learns faster and becomes better at minimizing the loss than its peers.
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The router quickly learns that routing to Expert 1 yields a lower error, so in subsequent forward passes, it assigns even more tokens to it.
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This creates a positive feedback loop called Expert Collapse.
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As training runs, the router keeps picking the same expert.
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Soon, one expert handles everything while the rest stay idle, wasting most of the experts we added.
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But we can see this clearly in a deep seek ablation study.
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The expert shown in green gradually takes over until it's receiving almost all of the tokens.
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This happens because standard router training only optimizes the language modeling loss,
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the cross entropy loss that measures how well the model predicts the MEX token.
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But this loss doesn't care how tokens are distributed across the experts.
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One simple idea is to add another loss function, the auxiliary load balancing loss.
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To calculate this balancing penalty, we first need to measure the actual token distribution.
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For each expert, we simply take the number of tokens routed to it
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and divide it by the total tokens in the batch.
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This gives us the token fraction, a measure of how much traffic that specific expert handled.
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Now we look at the router's confidence.
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We compute the average routing probability for that same expert across the entire batch.
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This tells us, on average, how strongly the router favored this expert, regardless of whether the token was actually assigned to it.
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We then multiply this actual token fraction by the average routing probability for each expert.
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Summing these products across all experts and scaling by the total number of experts gives us our auxiliary load balancing loss.
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Intuitively, this penalizes the model when the router is highly confident in an expert that is already receiving too much traffic.
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In an ideal scenario where routing is perfectly balanced, say every expert receives 25% of the traffic,
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the auxiliary loss evaluates to its theoretical minimum of 1.
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Conversely, in a collapsed state where a single expert hoards all the tokens,
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the loss spikes significantly, sending a strong penalty signal to correct the router's behavior.
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During training, we combine these two objectives.
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Our total loss becomes the primary language modeling plus the auxiliary load balancing loss scaled by a hyperparameter alpha.
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We are now simultaneously teaching the model to predict accurately and to utilize its experts more evenly.
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This alpha parameter controls the trade-off between prediction quality and expert utilization.
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We keep it small, typically around 0.01,
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so the language loss still dominates while the router gets a small push to distribute tokens more evenly across the experts.
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And if we look at the results here, we can see the difference.
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Without the auxiliary loss, the routing becomes concentrated on a few experts.
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With the balancing penalty, the tokens are distributed much more evenly across the experts.
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The auxiliary loss effectively stops expert collapse, but it introduces a new problem into to our objective function.
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The network now has to balance two conflicting goals.
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Because these gradients optimize different objectives, they produce opposing parameter updates during back propagation.
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The primary cross entropy loss produces gradients that optimize the router for prediction accuracy.
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At the same time, the auxiliary loss produces gradients that encourage a more balanced distribution of tokens across the experts.
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Because these gradients optimize conflicting objectives, they produce opposing parameter updates during back propagation,
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which degrades routing quality and ultimately hurts final model performance.
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To avoid this gradient interference, DeepSeq V3 removes the auxiliary loss from the training objective.
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It enforces load balancing by applying a dynamic bias directly to the routing scores during the forward pass.
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Standard routers calculate a routing score for each expert by taking the dot product between the token's hidden representation
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and the corresponding router weight vector.
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DeepSeq V3 uses a different gating mechanism.
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It drops the softmax entirely and applies a sigmoid to the router's output, producing an independent gating score for each expert.
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Then, before top case election, it adds a dynamic bias to each expert's gating score.
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Here's the important part.
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This isn't a normal learn parameter.
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Unlike a typical bias, it isn't updated through back propagation.
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Instead, DeepSeq updates it directly after each training step using a simple heuristic.
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The bias adjustment is directly proportional to the load error, the difference between the target load and the expert's actual load for that batch.
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If an expert's actual load is higher than the target load, its bias is decreased by a small step size,
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making it less likely to receive tokens in the next batch.
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On the flip side, if an expert's actual load is below the target load, its bias is increased by that step size,
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making it more likely to receive tokens until the distribution becomes balanced.
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While DeepSeq keeps bias updates separate from backpropagation, the logic is heuristic.
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Add or subtract the fixed step based on observed expert load.
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This works fine for smaller models, but moving toward extreme sparsity like Kimi K3, this step size is way too slow.
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Moonshot AI's recently released open-weight model has nearly 3 trillion parameters.
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Kimi K3 scales to 896 experts, yet activates only 16 of them for any given token.
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This means each expert is expected to receive less than 2% of the tokens.
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At this level of sparsity, a fixed bias update might not react quickly enough when the token distribution changes.
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For example, if the update step is too small, an inactive expert could take thousands of iterations before its bias is high enough to make the top 16.
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Until then, it gets very few or even no tokens, so it barely gets a chance to learn.
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On the flip side, if the step size is too large, the bias overcorrects.
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An expert can quickly go from receiving too few tokens to receiving too many, causing the routing decisions to become unstable.
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Kimi K3 avoids these incremental updates altogether.
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Instead, it computes the bias directly from the token distribution in each batch.
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Here's a simple example.
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Take a batch of 1,000 tokens and sort their scores from lowest to highest.
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Since each expert handles 2% of the tokens, we place the cutoff at the 98th percentile.
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Let's say that cutoff comes out to positive 1.2.
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This is the expert's quantile.
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We subtract it from the per-token cutoff, alpha, to get the expert's bias.
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Because top-k routing depends only on relative ranking, we can set alpha to zero without changing which experts are selected.
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The bias then effectively shifts each expert's scores according to its own token distribution, helping align the experts to the same target workload.
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Since an overutilized expert tends to produce higher routing scores, its 98th percentile is also higher, in our example, positive 1.2.
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Subtracting this positive quantile gives the expert a negative bias.
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This applies a targeted penalty to curb its token allocation.
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On the flip side, an underutilized expert has lower scores, giving it a negative quantile, like negative 3.
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Subtracting this negative quantile gives the expert a positive bias, boosting its token allocation.
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So, unlike DeepSeq's reactive approach, which updates the bias through small,
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fixed steps, KimiK3 computes the required bias directly from the batch score distribution in a single step.
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In large models like KimiK3, all the experts can't fit on a single GPU, so they're spread across multiple GPUs.
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When a token is routed to an expert, that token has to be sent to the GPU where that expert is located.
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The bias helps balance this traffic across the GPUs.
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Once the routing decision is made, the bias is discarded.
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The final mixture weights are computed using the original scores before the bias was added, keeping output representations unaffected.
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This lets the router balance the workload without changing what each expert learns.
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But as models scale up, another problem arises.
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training stability.
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Since routing decisions rely on softmax, if raw logits grow too large, the calculation quickly becomes unstable.
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The router multiplies the token input by its weight matrix, producing raw routing logits for each expert.
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Softmax turns these logits into probabilities by exponentiating them and dividing by their sum.
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That denominator is the normalization term, z of x.
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As training progresses, the router becomes more confident, driving logits higher.
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Say a logit reaches 12.
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To save memory and compute, LLMs use mixed precision training, like FP16, where numbers are capped at 65,504.
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Exponentiating a logit of 12 produces over 160,000, exceeding FP16's limit.
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This causes Z of X to overflow to infinity, making softmax produce NAN and destabilizing training.
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To prevent this during the forward pass, we subtract the constant C from every logit before exponentiating.
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Softmax is translation invariant, so this shift doesn't alter the output probabilities at all.
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In practice, C is the maximum logit.
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Subtracting it shifts the highest logit to zero.
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This keeps every exponentiated value between zero and one, preventing overflow without changing routing decisions.
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But logit shifting only fixes the forward pass.
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The underlying logits can still grow over time, making optimization increasingly unstable.
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To solve this, we introduce router Z loss.
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This directly penalizes the normalization term Z of X to keep logic growth firmly under control.
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Because the normalization term Z of X grows exponentially, we first take its logarithm to compress it onto a numerically stable scale.
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We then square it to guarantee a strictly positive loss that aggressively penalizes massive outliers.
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Substituting Z of X gives the complete router Z loss formula.
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Z loss acts as a soft penalty, only stepping in if raw logits grow excessively large.
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Integrating Z loss into the total objective combines task loss, load balancing penalty, and router Z loss.
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The hyperparameter beta controls the penalty strength.
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If it's too small, the logits can still grow too large.
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If it's too large, the penalty begins to interfere with the model's main training objective.
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The routing problem is mostly solved.
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The challenge now is
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that we can't just run an MOE model on a GPU the same way we run a dense model.
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GPUs are built for massive parallelism, so running experts one by one leaves most of the hardware idle.
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To fix this, we run all experts together using batched matrix multiplication.
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Under the hood, each expert is simply a standard feedforward network, just size smaller so multiple experts can run efficiently.
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Tokens first pass through the up projection layer, followed by the activation function, and finally through the down projection layer to produce the final output.
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We'll focus on the up projection layer, where the primary compute bottleneck occurs.
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We can run them all at once by combining their weight matrices into a single block diagonal matrix.
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We call this expert capacity.
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Under top 1 routing, that's just total tokens divided by the number of experts, scaled by our capacity factor.
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Say we have a batch of 75 tokens routed across 3 experts.
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At a capacity of 1, we allocate space for 25 tokens per expert.
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But routing is dynamic and skewed.
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In our example, Expert 1 gets 35 tokens, while Experts 2 and 3 receive 25 and 20 tokens.
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While Expert 1 overshoots its capacity, Expert 3 only gets 20 tokens, leaving 5 slots completely empty.
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That's the biggest drawback of fixed allocation.
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Since Expert 1 only has room for 25 tokens, the remaining 10 tokens overflow.
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These excess tokens are dropped and bypass expert computation, flowing directly to the residual stream, which can degrade overall model performance.
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One quick workaround is to increase the capacity factor.
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Now, Expert 1 can handle all 35 tokens without dropping any.
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The catch is that batched matrix multiplication requires uniform shapes,
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so experts 2 and 3 must also allocate 35 rows even though they only have 25 and 20 tokens.
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These extra rows are just zero padding, wasting GPU memory and compute.
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So whether it's dropping tokens or wasting padding, both problems stem from the exact same issue,
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forcing every expert matrix into identical shapes.
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To fix this bottleneck without dropping tokens or wasting memory, MegaBlocks introduces non-padded block-sparse matrix multiplication.
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With MegaBlocks, matrix dimensions don't have to be uniform.
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It represents both the input and weight matrices as variable-sized blocks that match each expert's actual token count.
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35 tokens for expert 1, 25 for expert 2, and 20 for expert 3.
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Notice how all that wasted padding is completely gone.
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We get the exact same output without dropping tokens or wasting GPU memory.
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To execute these variable-sized token batches efficiently, MegaBlocks uses block tiling.
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It partitions each expert's workload into small, fixed-sized blocks.
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These blocks are sized to match GPU hardware tiles, typically 16 or 32 tokens per block.
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Take Expert 1.
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Its 35 tokens are split into two full 16-token blocks plus a partial block with three tokens.
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Expert 2's 25 tokens are split into two blocks.
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Expert 3's 20 tokens also form two blocks, giving us seven uniform blocks in total.
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The GPU no longer sees unbalanced experts.
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It processes these seven uniform blocks in one continuous stream.
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The only remaining padding occurs inside partial blocks.
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We only have to pad a few entries inside one tile, making the overhead negligible.
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But there's another way to handle load balancing altogether.
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Instead of having tokens choose their experts, ExpertChoice flips this around.
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The experts choose which tokens they process.
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As before, multiplying the input tokens by the routing weight matrix yields the routing score matrix.
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Under traditional token choice routing, each token evaluates its row to identify its top-scoring experts.
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Expert choice completely reverses this logic.
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Instead, each expert evaluates its column and picks the tokens with the highest routing scores.
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Say we take eight tokens and four experts at a capacity factor of 1.0.
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Each expert gets a fixed capacity of two tokens and picks the top two tokens from its column.
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For example, expert one evaluates the first column and picks tokens 1 and 3.
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Similarly, experts 2, 3, and 4 evaluate their columns and select their top two tokens.
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By assigning an equal number of tokens to every expert, load balancing is built into the architecture, eliminating the need for auxiliary losses.
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Computation also adapts to each token.
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Important tokens can be selected by multiple experts, while simpler tokens are selected once or skipped entirely.
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But expert choice still relies on hard top-case selection.
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A token is either picked or ignored.
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Soft MOE removes that boundary completely.
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Instead of assigning discrete tokens to experts, every expert receives a soft, weighted blend of the entire batch,
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making routing fully differentiable, with zero drop tokens.
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For example, expert 1 doesn't get token A by itself.
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It gets a mix of token A, token B, token C, and every other token in the batch, with each one contributing by a different amount.
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Expert 1 processes that mixture, and the output is distributed back to each token based on its original contribution.
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Another direction is heterogeneous MOE, where experts don't all have to be the same size.
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Some experts are larger and more capable, while others are lightweight.
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The router can send complex tokens to the larger experts and simpler tokens to the smaller ones, using the model's parameters more efficiently.
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So far, we've seen how standard routing works well, but modern architectures push this idea further.
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They separate the knowledge that's useful across many tokens into a shared pathway, while making the routed experts more specialized.
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DeepSeq keeps a shared expert active for every token, bypassing the router.
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It handles common patterns and knowledge, while the routed experts can focus on more specific knowledge.
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It also changes the size of those routed experts.
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Instead of using a few large experts, it splits them into smaller micro-experts, a technique called fine-grained expert segmentation.
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This vastly expands the number of possible expert combinations.
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With 16 large experts selecting 2, there's 120 possible combinations, but splitting
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that capacity into 64 smaller experts selecting 8 keeps compute the same while combinations jump to over 4 billion,
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giving the router much more flexibility.
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If we look at DeepSeq's ablation study,
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combining shared experts with fine-grained segmentation consistently improves benchmark performance without increasing inference cost.
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Moonshot AI also uses shared experts in Kimi K3, running two shared experts alongside its standard routed experts.
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With 896 standard experts and two shared experts, Kimi K3 reaches 2.8 trillion total parameters.
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Yet, for each token, it only activates 16 routed experts, using a fraction of its compute, while shared experts handle common language patterns.
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Now let's put this routing into a full transformer layer.
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First we turn our input text into tokens.
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Each token gets mapped to an ID, and an embedding table converts those IDs into vectors.
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Together these form our input matrix X.
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We pass matrix X into multi-head self-attention, letting each token gather context from all the others, producing our context-aware matrix A.
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Next, we add the original input X directly back to A through a skip connection to keep training stable.
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Then, layer normalization stabilizes the values, giving us our normalized matrix.
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After attention comes the feedforward network.
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In a standard transformer, this is one massive set of weights.
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If this block has 48 billion parameters, every token must run through all 48 billion parameters.
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It's brute force.
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With a sparse MOE layer, we split that block into 8 6 billion parameter experts.
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Using top two routing, each token only activates two experts, running through 12 billion parameters instead of all 48.
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The router evaluates each token and picks its top experts.
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For example, HART routes to experts A and D, while PUMPs goes to B and E.
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Every other token follows the same path.
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Each token picks its top two experts, weights their outputs by the router scores, and combines them into matrix Y.
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Then, a second skip connection adds Y back to our normalized matrix.
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Finally, another layer normalization gives us matrix Z, which feeds straight into the next layer.
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And that's how an MOE transformer layer works.
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This is how we scale to trillion parameter models while only spending a fraction of the compute per token.
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Thanks for watching.
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If you like this video, please like and subscribe, and I'll see you in the next video.
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Vocabulary and speaking notes for this lesson
This video has 321 sentences and 4175 words to shadow. The speech runs for 29:02. The speaker talks at a steady 144 words per minute, a comfortable pace for shadowing. Only 69% of the words are among the 3,000 most common in English, so the vocabulary is demanding.
Key vocabulary in this video
15 less common words from the video, with pronunciation and meaning:
- token /ˈtoʊkən/ (noun) — Something serving as an expression of something else.
- bias /ˈbaɪ.əs/ (noun) — Inclination towards something.
- matrix /ˈmeɪ.tɹɪks/ (noun) — The cavity or mold in which anything is formed.
- parameter /pəˈɹæm.ə.tɚ/ (noun) — A value kept constant during an experiment, equation, calculation, or similar, but varied over other versions of the experiment, equation, calculation, etc.
- layer /ˈleɪ̯ɚ/ (noun) — A single thickness of some material covering a surface.
- batch /bæt͡ʃ/ (noun) — The quantity of bread or other baked goods baked at one time.
- output /ˈaʊtpʊt/ (noun) — Production; quantity produced, created, or completed.
- auxiliary /ɔɡˈzɪl.(jə).ɹi/ (adjective) — Helping; giving assistance or support.
- penalty /ˈpɛn.əl.ti/ (noun) — A legal sentence.
- objective /ɒbˈd͡ʒɛk.tɪv/ (noun) — A material object that physically exists.
- input /ˈɪnpʊt/ (noun) — The act or process of putting in; infusion.
- combine /kəmˈbaɪn/ (verb) — To bring (two or more things or activities) together; to unite.
- introduce /ˌɪntɹəˈdus/ (verb) — To cause (someone) to be acquainted (with someone else).
- mixture /ˈmɪkst͡ʃɚ/ (noun) — The act of mixing.
- dense /ˈdɛns/ (adjective) — Having relatively high density.
Phrasal verbs you will hear
- look at (verb) — To observe or watch.
- pass through (verb) — To go through, to travel through, to transit or lie across a place or from one place to another.
- rely on (verb) — To be confident in.
- run through (verb) — To summarise briefly.
- build into /bɪldˈɪn.tu/ (verb) — to add components to a larger entity without interfering with the purpose or functionality of the larger entity
- followed by — And then, and after that.
- hold over /ˌhəʊld ˈəʊ̯.və/ (verb) — (Of a resource) To support or sustain someone for a limited period.
- light up (verb) — To illuminate, to bring light to something, to brighten.
Pronunciation to watch
The speaker uses 20 contractions and reduced forms, such as doesn't, don't, isn't. Say them the short way, as you hear them.
- The “th” sounds: gather /ˈɡæðɚ/, mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, altogether /ɔl.tuˈɡɛð.ɚ/
- The “sh” and “zh” sounds: projection /pɹəˈd͡ʒɛkʃən/, fraction /ˈfɹæk.ʃən/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, dimension /daɪˈmɛn.ʃən/, activation /ˌæktəˈveɪʃən/
- Long words — get the stress right: parameter /pəˈɹæm.ə.tɚ/, auxiliary /ɔɡˈzɪl.(jə).ɹi/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, activation /ˌæktəˈveɪʃən/, combinations /kɑmbɪˈneɪʃənz/
How to practise with this video
- Listen to the whole video once without speaking and note the words you do not know.
- Shadow it sentence by sentence at normal speed, repeating each one until your rhythm matches the speaker.
- Record yourself and compare with the original, paying attention to words like token, bias, matrix.
Grammar in this video
The structures the speaker uses most, with the exact words from the video:
| Structure | In the video |
|---|---|
| Passive voice be + past participle — the focus is on what happens, not who does it | is activated · isn't labeled · are routed |
| Present perfect have/has + past participle — a past action that still matters now | has become · we've seen |
What is the Shadowing Technique?
Shadowing is a science-backed language learning technique originally developed for professional interpreter training and popularized by polyglot Dr. Alexander Arguelles. The method is simple but powerful: you listen to native English audio and immediately repeat it out loud — like a shadow following the speaker with just a 1–2 second delay. Unlike passive listening or grammar drills, shadowing forces your brain and mouth muscles to simultaneously process and reproduce real speech patterns. Research shows it significantly improves pronunciation accuracy, intonation, rhythm, connected speech, listening comprehension, and speaking fluency — making it one of the most effective methods for IELTS Speaking preparation and real-world English communication.