Prática de Shadowing: Convergence and Divergence: The Return of Sequences and Series - Aprenda a falar inglês com vídeo
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Professor Dave here, let’s converge a little.
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Earlier is this course, we introduced the concept of a sequence as a particular list of numbers, and we looked at some basic types, like arithmetic sequences, geometric sequences, and even some more interesting ones like the Fibonacci sequence.
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We saw how these can be expressed in a few different ways, as beyond simply listing the terms, they can be abbreviated using a particular expression or formula.
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We also expanded on this to look at series and summation notation.
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If you’ve never seen these things before, go back and check out this tutorial now, because we are going to be building on that knowledge over the next few tutorials, since we now understand calculus.
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First, we want to be able to assess whether a sequence is convergent or divergent, so let’s find out what that means.
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Take the sequence A sub N equals N. That means that the first term is one, then two, and so forth through the integers.
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We want to find out what this sequence does in the limit of N approaching infinity.
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For this one it’s easy to see that the sequence approaches infinity as N approaches infinity, so we would call this sequence divergent, because the limit does not exist.
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Then let’s look at something like A sub N equals N over N plus one.
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This will give us one half, two thirds, three fourths, and so forth.
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We can pretty quickly see that this sequence will approach one but never quite get there, so the limit of this sequence as N approaches infinity, is one.
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Because the limit exists, as a finite number, we would call this sequence convergent.
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There are some sequences for which it’s a little trickier to determine the limit, and with these it may be useful to apply some of the limit laws we already know, as they could help us manipulate things into a form where the limit is easier to assess.
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Sometimes we can use special techniques, like using L’Hospital’s rule on the related function, or something called the squeeze theorem.
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This one says that if there are three sequences, A, B, and C, and B is always between A and C, then if A and C both have a limit of L, then B must also have a limit of L, because it is being squeezed in between these ones.
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Some sequences will be divergent without going to infinity, like negative one to the N power.
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This just alternates between positive and negative one forever, so there is no limit.
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So once again, we look at what a sequence does as N approaches infinity.
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If the sequence asymptotically approaches some finite number, it is convergent.
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If it does not do that, it is divergent.
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Now that we understand convergence and divergence for sequences, let’s apply this understanding to series.
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First we have to recall what a series is.
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When we try to add up all the terms in an infinite sequence, we get an infinite series.
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This can be represented by listing out all the terms, but it can also be abbreviated using the summation notation we already learned, with the upper case sigma.
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We can talk about convergent and divergent series just like we did for sequences.
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Starting again with a simple example, simply N, we can easily see that if we were to add up all the positive integers, which themselves go to infinity, certainly their sum will also be infinite.
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This can be demonstrated by forming a new sequence, where the first term is the first term of the series, and then the sum of the first two terms of the series, and then the first three terms, and four terms, and so forth.
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The limit of this sequence is the sum of the original series, and the sequence will go to infinity, so the original series is clearly divergent.
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Can any infinite series be convergent?
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That is, can an infinite number of terms add up to give a finite number?
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Well when we looked at improper integrals, we saw exactly this sort of thing happening, with a limit of integration going to infinity but still yielding a finite value for the area under the curve, so we shouldn’t be too surprised that convergent infinite series exist.
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Take for example one over two to the N. Listing the first few terms we get one half, one fourth, one eighth, and so on, approaching zero.
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Let’s use the same technique as before, creating a new sequence and listing the first term of the series, then the sum of the first two, which is three fourths, then the sum of the first three, which is seven eighths, and if we continue on in this manner, we see that this sequence approaches one.
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Therefore the sum of this series is equal to one, and we can say that it is convergent.
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Different types of series will have different requirements for convergence.
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Take this generalized geometric series.
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If we recall the definition of a geometric sequence, it is one in which you multiply each term by some constant to get the next one, so starting with A, we get AR, then ARR, or AR squared, then AR cubed, and so forth.
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So a geometric series is just the sum of these terms, or the sum of A times R to the (N minus one).
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We will find that if the absolute value of R is greater than one, a geometric series will be divergent, because these terms will get bigger and bigger, and therefore go to infinity.
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If equal to one, we are just adding up infinitely many A terms, which will also be divergent.
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But going back to the sequence, if the absolute value of R is less than one, as it is raised to bigger and bigger exponents, each term will get smaller, and the limit of the sequence will be zero, so the series, or the sum of the terms, will be convergent, and the sum will be equal to A over the quantity (one minus R).
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In fact, an important theorem states that in order for a series to be convergent, the sequence that generates the terms in the series must have a limit of zero.
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This makes sense, because if the limit were any other number, or if the sequence itself was divergent, there would be no way for the terms in the series to add up to a finite value.
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And even if the limit of the sequence is zero, it is still not a guarantee that the related series will converge.
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So sometimes, we can look at a series and state that it is divergent simply by showing that the sequence it is derived from does not converge to zero.
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Take something like N squared over the quantity (five N squared plus four) from one to infinity.
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To assess the series, let’s just look at the sequence of numbers we get from this expression, without considering their sum.
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What is the limit of this sequence as N approaches infinity?
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Well we need some algebraic manipulation first.
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Let’s divide both top and bottom by N squared so that we aren’t plugging in so many infinities.
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On top we get one, and on the bottom we get five plus four over N squared.
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Now we plug in infinity and this term goes to zero, leaving us with one fifth.
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The sequence does not converge to zero, so the sum of this series that includes all the terms from that sequence must be divergent.
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Now that we understand the concepts of convergence and divergence as they apply to both sequences and series, we are ready to move forward and learn more about series.
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Vocabulário e dicas de fala para esta lição
Este vídeo tem 55 frases e 1296 palavras para praticar shadowing. A fala dura 9:07. O falante mantém um ritmo estável de cerca de 142 palavras por minuto, confortável para o shadowing. Apenas 79% das palavras estão entre as 3.000 mais comuns do inglês, por isso o vocabulário é exigente.
Vocabulário principal deste vídeo
15 palavras do vídeo que vale a pena aprender, com pronúncia e significado:
| Palavra | Pronúncia | Significado |
|---|---|---|
| sequence substantivo | /ˈsiː.kwəns/ | sequência |
| infinity substantivo | /ɪnˈfɪnɪti/ | infinito, infinidade |
| infinite adjetivo | /ˈɪnfɪnɪt/ | infinito |
| finite adjetivo | /ˈfaɪ.naɪt/ | finito |
| geometric adjetivo | /ˌd͡ʒiː.əʊˈmɛt.ɹɪk/ | geométrico |
| assess verbo | /əˈsɛs/ | estimar, avaliar |
| technique substantivo | /tɛkˈniːk/ | técnica |
| recall verbo | /ɹɪˈkɔl/ | reconvocar |
| eighth adjetivo | /eɪtθ/ | oitavo |
| plug substantivo | /plʌɡ/ | plugue |
| quantity substantivo | /ˈkwɑn(t)ɪti/ | quantidade |
| minus | /ˈmaɪ.nəs/ | menos |
| squeeze verbo | /skwiːz/ | espremer, apertar |
| tutorial substantivo | /ˌtjuːˈtɔːɹɪəl/ | tutorial |
| theorem substantivo | /ˈθiərəm/ | teorema |
Phrasal verbs que você vai ouvir
| Palavra | Significado |
|---|---|
| find out verbo | descobrir |
| check out verbo | verificar, sacar só |
| go back verbo | voltar |
| move forward verbo | adiantar |
Gramática neste vídeo
As estruturas que o falante mais usa, com as palavras exatas do vídeo:
| Estrutura | No vídeo |
|---|---|
| Voz passiva be + particípio passado — o foco está no que acontece, não em quem faz | can be expressed · being squeezed · can be represented |
| Orações relativas who / which + oração — informação extra sobre uma pessoa ou coisa | two, which is · terms, which will |
Pronúncia para ficar de olho
O falante usa 3 contrações e formas reduzidas, como aren't, shouldn't, you've. Diga-as na forma curta, do jeito que você ouve.
- Os sons de “th”: eighth /eɪtθ/, theorem /ˈθiərəm/, arithmetic /æɹɪθˈmɛtɪk/
- Os sons de “sh” e “zh”: integration /ˌɪn.tɪˈɡɹeɪ.ʃən/, manipulation /məˌnɪp.juˈleɪ.ʃən/, notation /noʊˈteɪʃən/, summation /sʌˈmeɪʃən/
- Palavras longas — acerte a sílaba tônica: infinity /ɪnˈfɪnɪti/, geometric /ˌd͡ʒiː.əʊˈmɛt.ɹɪk/, integration /ˌɪn.tɪˈɡɹeɪ.ʃən/, manipulation /məˌnɪp.juˈleɪ.ʃən/, manipulate /məˈnɪp.jʊ.leɪt/
Como praticar com este vídeo
- Ouça o vídeo inteiro uma vez sem falar e anote as palavras que você não conhece.
- Faça shadowing frase por frase na velocidade normal, repetindo cada uma até o seu ritmo ficar igual ao do falante.
- Grave a sua voz e compare com o original, prestando atenção a palavras como sequence, infinity, infinite.
O que é a Técnica de Shadowing?
Shadowing é uma técnica de aprendizado de idiomas com base científica, originalmente desenvolvida para o treinamento de intérpretes profissionais. O método é simples, mas poderoso: você ouve áudio em inglês nativo e repete imediatamente em voz alta — como uma sombra seguindo o falante com 1-2 segundos de atraso. Pesquisas mostram melhora significativa na precisão da pronúncia, entonação, ritmo, sons conectados, compreensão auditiva e fluência na fala.