शैडोइंग अभ्यास: What happens when you remove the hippocampus? - Sam Kean - YouTube के साथ अंग्रेजी बोलना सीखें

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On September 1, 1953, William Scoville used a hand crank and a cheap drill saw to bore into a young man's skull,
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cutting away vital pieces of his brain and sucking them out through a metal tube.
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But this wasn't a scene from a horror film or a gruesome police report.
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Dr. Scoville was one of the most renowned neurosurgeons of his time,
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The young man was Henry Malayason,
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the famous patient known as H.M.,
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whose case provided amazing insights into how our brains work.
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As a boy, Henry had cracked his skull in an accident and soon began having seizures,
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blacking out, and losing control of bodily functions.
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After enduring years of frequent episodes and even dropping out of high school,
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the desperate young man had turned to Dr. Scoville,
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a daredevil known for risky surgeries.
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Partial lobotomies had been used for decades to treat mental patients,
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based on the notion that mental functions were strictly localized to corresponding brain areas.
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Having successfully used them to reduce seizures in psychotics,
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Scoville decided to remove H.M.'s hippocampus,
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a part of the limbic system that was associated with emotion,
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but whose function was unknown.
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At first glance, the operation had succeeded.
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H.M.'s seizures virtually disappeared, with no change in personality,
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and his IQ even improved.
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But there was one problem.
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His memory was shot.
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Besides losing most of his memories from the previous decade, H.M was unable to form new ones,
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forgetting what day it was,
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repeating comments, and even eating multiple meals in a row.
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When Scoville informed another expert,
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Wilder Penfield, of the results,
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he sent a PhD student named Brenda Milner to study HM at his parents' home,
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where he now spent his days doing odd chores and watching classic movies for the first time,
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over and over.
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What she discovered through a series of tests and interviews didn't just contribute greatly to the study of memory.
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It redefined what memory even meant.
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One of Milner's findings shed light on the obvious fact that although H.M couldn't form new memories,
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he still retained information long enough from moment to moment to finish a sentence or find the bathroom.
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When Milner gave him a random number,
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he managed to remember it for 15 minutes by repeating it to himself constantly.
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But only five minutes later,
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he forgot the test had even taken place.
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Neuroscientists had thought of memory as monolithic,
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all of it essentially the same,
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and stored throughout the brain.
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Milner's results were not only the first clue for the now familiar distinction between short-term and long-term memory,
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but showed that each uses different brain regions.
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We now know that memory formation involves several steps.
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After immediate sensory data is temporarily transcribed by neurons in the cortex,
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it travels to the hippocampus,
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where special proteins work to strengthen the cortical-synaptic connections.
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If the experience was strong enough,
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or we recall it periodically in the first few days,
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the hippocampus then transfers the memory back to the cortex for permanent storage.
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HM's mind could form the initial impressions,
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but without a hippocampus to perform this memory consolidation,
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they eroded like messages scrawled in sand.
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But this was not the only memory distinction Milner found.
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In a now-famous experiment,
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she asked H.M to trace a third star in the narrow space between the outlines of two concentric ones,
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while he could only see his paper and pencil through a mirror.
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Like anyone else performing such an awkward task for the first time, he did horribly.
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But surprisingly, he improved over repeated trials,
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even though he had no memory of previous attempts.
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His unconscious motor centers remembered remembered what the conscious mind had forgotten.
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What Milner had discovered was that the declarative memory of names,
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dates, and facts is different from the procedural memory of riding a bicycle or signing your name.
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And we now know that procedural memory relies more on the basal ganglia and cerebellum,
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structures that were intact in H.M.'s brain.
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This distinction between knowing that and knowing how has underpinned all memory research since.
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H.M died at the age of 82 after a mostly peaceful life in a nursing home.
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Over the years, he had been examined by more than 100 neuroscientists,
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making his the most studied mind in history.
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Upon his death, his brain was preserved and scanned before being cut into over 2,000 individual slices
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and photographed to form a digital map down to the level of individual neurons,
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all in a live broadcast watched by 400,000 people.
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Though H.M spent most of his life forgetting things,
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he and his contributions to our understanding of memory will be remembered for generations to come.
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Thank you.

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मुख्य शब्दावली और वाक्यांश

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