Pratica di Shadowing: Meet Your Master - Getting to Know Your Brain: Crash Course Psychology #4 - Impara a parlare inglese con i video
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In the early 1800s, German physician Franz Joseph Gall spent a lot of time running his fingers over the scalps of strangers.
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He wasn't a hairdresser, he wasn't a masseuse, he wasn't, like, just a big fan of heads.
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He was a phrenologist.
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He was the first phrenologist.
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Gall believed that a person's personality was linked to their skull morphology, that its bumps and ridges indicated aspects of their character.
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Amazingly, this science actually caught on, was widely practiced for decades, and Gall Gahl became something of a celebrity.
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Well, with a head like his, one can see how he might have been a little bit fixated with skull shape.
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Eventually, phrenology was dismissed as occult pseudoscience, because it turns out that your cranial contours tell us exactly nothing about what's happening inside the brain.
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And yet, Gahl was actually onto something big, something that we knew nothing about.
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Remember, at this point, we were just starting to get consensus that the brain was the source of self, and not like the soul,
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or the heart, or whatever.
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His lasting and correct proposition was that different parts of the brain control specific aspects of our behavior.
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Like we talked about last time, there is a strong link between biological activity and psychological events.
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But in addition to the interplay of chemicals like neurotransmitters and hormones,
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a lot of this also has to do with the fact that localized parts of the brain have specific functions,
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like vision, movement, memory, speech, even facial recognition.
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Function, in other words, is localized.
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If you could stimulate different parts of my brain any way you wanted to, and if you asked me nicely, I just might let you.
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You could control my movements, my memories, even my personality.
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Poke my brain over here, and my arm would twitch.
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Poke it here, and I'd remember my first kiss.
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Do it up here, and suddenly I'd be filled with a tremendous hulk -like rage.
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This is about the link between the brain, that physical hunk of gunk between the ears, and the mind.
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The thing that is us.
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Our consciousness, our behavior, our decisions, our memories, ourselves.
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Some neuroscientists like to say that the mind is what the brain does.
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So one of the driving questions of psychology, and, like, the human experiment, is how do our brain's functions tie to the behavior of the mind.
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And you can't even ask the right questions, let alone get at some of the answers, until you get to know the brain.
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You might have a passing familiarity with your nervous system, like the brain bone's connected to the spinal cord bone,
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and the spinal cord bone is connected to the motor neuron bone.
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That's your central nervous system, and there aren't actually any bones.
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The central nervous system, or just CNS, is what makes your body's big decisions.
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This system is the command center, and if you mess with it, things are gonna get weird.
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There's also the peripheral nervous system, which is composed of scout -like sensory neurons that gather information and report it back to the central nervous system.
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But to get a handle on just how physical the roots of your mind and personality are, how concretely your nervous system makes you you.
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Let me tell you a story.
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The Curious Case of Phineas Gage.
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In 1848, a genial chap named Phineas Gage was working on the railroad, tamping gunpowder into a blasting hole with an iron rod,
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when the gunpowder ignited.
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The resulting explosion caused the rod to shoot like a bullet up through his left cheek
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and out the top of his head.
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There's brain in between those two places, by the way.
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Amazingly, he stood up after the accident and walked over to a cart, described what had happened, and then they drove him back to his house,
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all while he was conscious.
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So the doctor came to examine him, uh, and refused to believe that a rod had in fact passed through his head,
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understandably, until Phineas started coughing, and an amount of brain that the doctor described as a teacupful fell out of his head,
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and the doctor had to accept, indeed, what had happened.
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After a few months of convalescing, he was pretty much healed up and moving around like he used to.
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But some of his friends were saying that Phineas was no longer himself.
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Yes, he had his memories and mental abilities, and he walked and talked and looked the same minus an eyeball.
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But whereas the old Phineas was mild -mannered and soft -spoken, the post -spike to the brain Phineas was surly and mean -spirited and vulgar.
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People started to describe him as no longer Gage.
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Phineas moved away from America, the scientific establishment lost contact with him, and 12 years later, after a series of seizures,
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he died at the age of 36.
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Phineas is a great, if extreme, example of how function is localized in the brain, and how physical biological factors can be reflected in psychological ways.
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Of course, he's also an excellent example of how individual case studies are not particularly useful,
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especially since we have very little data on what Phineas was actually like before or even after his accident.
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Most accounts are from the months directly after the accident, and many of them conflict.
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It's completely possible that he continued to heal and lived his remaining years as a happy and productive citizen.
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Intro -psychology texts often paint a pretty simple picture of Phineas, just so that we can have a clear example of the moment
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when physicians realized that messing with the brain was messing with the mind, but it is, of course,
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all much more complicated, and as Phineas was an actual,
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real -life person, I feel like we should give him the nuance and mystery that he deserves.
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Now you might have heard that we only use about 10 % of our brains, and oh, if that were true,
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Phineas could lose a quarter of his and he'd be just fine.
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And if we could just harness the rest of that gray mush, we'd be able to mind -read and levitate and get all Professor X.
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It's an exciting thought, as exciting as the idea
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that I can tell what kind of tea you like by feeling the bumps on your head.
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It is also exactly as wrong.
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After watching an hour or so of reality TV, you'd be forgiven for thinking that some
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Some people are only working at 10 % brain capacity,
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but in actual reality, brain scans show that nearly every region of the brain lights up during even simple tasks, like walking and talking.
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Not only that, but the brain itself requires 20 % of all the body's energy,
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and it would make little evolutionary sense to throw much energy away at something that's only minimally active.
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As animals, our capabilities have developed in part from our brain structures.
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We're actually able to trace our evolutionary history as we come to understand these structures.
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Less complex animals have simpler brains designed for basic functioning and survival, rest, breathe, eat.
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Whereas more complex animals, like many mammals, possess brains that feel, remember, reason, and predict.
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These animals don't have all new systems.
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They have new brain systems built upon old brain systems.
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The brain is kind of like a set of Russian nesting dolls.
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The outermost wooden doll is the newest, most detailed, and most complex.
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But as you go deeper, the dolls become older and smaller and simpler and more generic.
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The innermost wooden doll is the oldest, most basic.
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It's like a fossil in your head.
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This inner core of the brain, sometimes called the old brain, still performs for us much as it did for our early evolutionary ancestors.
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It's anchored by the brainstem, the most ancient and central core of the brain, where the spinal cord enters the skull.
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Above it, at the base of the skull, is the medulla.
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Here, old brain functions happen automatically without any conscious effort.
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The beating of hearts, the breathing of lungs, that sort of thing.
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The pons is perched on the medulla, and it helps coordinate movement.
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Above the pons, at the top of the brainstem, is the thalamus, a pair of egg -shaped structures that take in sensory information related to seeing,
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hearing, touching, and tasting.
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The reticular formation is a finger -shaped nerve network inside the brainstem that's essential for arousal,
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which isn't necessarily what you feel upon seeing a particularly nice -looking human,
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but instead refers to things like sleeping and walking and pain perception and other important functions.
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A baseball -sized cerebellum, or little brain, swells from the bottom of the brainstem and is responsible for nonverbal learning and memory,
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the perception of time, and modulating emotions.
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It controls voluntary movement, like your sweet dance moves, but it also gets impaired easily under the influence of alcohol, hence the term tipsy.
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So the old brain systems keep our body's basic functions running smoothly, the sort of stuff any animal might need.
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This is pretty much where the brain stops for reptiles.
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For higher functions, we look to the limbic system.
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This includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus, sort of a border region of the brain separating the old brain and the newer, higher cerebral areas.
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The amygdala consists of two lima bean sized clusters of neurons
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and is responsible for memory consolidation as well as both our greatest fear and hottest aggression.
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Stimulate one area of the amygdala and a docile family dog suddenly morphs into a bloodthirsty Cujo,
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shift that electrode over just a tiny bit and that dog will be cowering at butterfly shadow puppets.
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The hypothalamus keeps your whole body steady, regulating body temperature, circadian rhythms, and hunger also helps govern the endocrine system, especially the pituitary gland.
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You should also thank your hypothalamus for allowing you to feel pleasure and reward.
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Rats implanted with electrodes in the reward center of their hypothalamuses, and given ways to self -stimulate those areas,
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will essentially reward themselves until they collapse or die.
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So use with caution.
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The final part of the limbic system is the hippocampus, central to learning and memory,
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and if it's damaged, a person may lose their ability to retain new facts and memories.
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Now above all of this is the most advanced stuff, the stuff that you think of when you think of the brain, the gray matter.
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The two hemispheres of your cerebrum make up about 85 % of your brain weight and oversee your ability to think, speak, and perceive.
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The left and right hemispheres govern and regulate differing functions, giving us a split brain connected by a structure called the corpus callosum.
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So, for instance, language production is controlled largely by the left hemisphere, while certain creative functions are controlled by the right.
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Though, this has nothing to do with handedness
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or people having dominant sides of their brain being more analytical or creative or whatever.
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That's part of what we call pop psychology, a behavioral disorder in which journalists and armchair psychologists use research showing beautiful,
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detailed, intimately connected complexities of your brain to sell newspapers or reinforce previously held beliefs.
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Yes, some tasks are distributed to one side, but the sides are deeply and constantly connected.
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A statement as general as artistic people use their right brains is as useless as saying artistic people have particularly bumpy heads.
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Finally, covering the left and right hemispheres, we have the cerebral cortex, a thin layer of over 20 billion interconnected neurons.
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But let's not forget the unsung heroes of your nervous system, the billions of non -neuron glial cells, which provide a spiderweb of support that surround,
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insulate, and nourish these cerebral neurons.
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You've probably seen enough brain diagrams to know that the cerebral cortex's left and right sides are subdivided into four lobes.
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The frontal, parietal, occipital, and the frontal cortex and temporal, all separated by especially prominent folds or fissures.
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Each lobe does indeed have its own set of duties that would have made Franz Gall proud.
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The frontal lobes, just behind your forehead, are involved in speaking, planning,
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judging, abstract thinking, and, as the tale of Phineas Gage reminds us, aspects of personality.
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The parietal lobes receive and process your sense of touch and body position.
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At the back of your head, the occipital lobes receive information related to sight.
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And the temporal lobes, just above your ears, process sound, including speech comprehension.
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Remember that each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, so my left temporal lobe processes sounds heard through my right ear.
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And within these lobes, there are still more regions that have specialized functions.
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Your motor cortex at the rear of your frontal lobes, for example, controls voluntary movements and sends messages from the brain out to the body like,
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Pet that dog!
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Or, Pick up that mug!
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While your sensory cortex right behind it processes incoming sensations like, Ooh, that doggy is soft!
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Or, Gah, that mug is hot!
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The rest of your gray matter is made up of association areas that are related to higher mental functions like remembering, thinking, learning, and speaking.
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But the thing about association areas is that, unlike your sensory or motor cortex, you couldn't just poke one and create a neat response.
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Association areas are more subtle.
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They deal with things like interpreting and integrating sensory input and linking it up with memories.
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And they prevail throughout all four lobes, so brain damage to different areas will cause very different results.
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A lesion on a specific part of the temporal lobe may destroy a person's ability to recognize faces,
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traumatic memories, or overactive hormones can profoundly affect our behavior and emotions, all of which remind us how fundamentally biology and psychology are intertwined.
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And there are a few more fascinating examples of this than how we sense and perceive the world around us,
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so that's where we're gonna pick up next week.
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For now, if you were paying attention, you learned the basics of the central nervous system,
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specifically the brain, which can be understood in terms of old or more evolutionarily ancestral structures, along along with the limbic system,
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and new structures, which include lobes, cortices, and association areas.
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Thanks for watching this lesson in Crash Course Psychology, which was brought to you by The Air Show, Midnight House Elves on Etsy, and Daniel Vassi.
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Thank you so much to all of you.
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If you would like to sponsor an episode and give your own shout -out, you can learn about that and other perks available at Subbable .com.
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This episode was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake DiPastino and myself, and our consultant is Dr. Ranjit Bhagwat.
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Our editor and director is Nicholas Jenkins, Michael Aranda is our sound designer, and our graphics team is Thought Cafe.
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Vocabolario e note di pronuncia per questa lezione
Questa lezione di conversazione si basa sul video “Meet Your Master - Getting to Know Your Brain: Crash Course Psychology”. Le parole che ritornano più spesso: brain, Phineas, lobe, function. Questo video contiene 159 frasi e 2483 parole da ripetere con lo shadowing. Il parlato dura 12:24. Chi parla va veloce, circa 200 parole al minuto: aspettati suoni legati e ridotti. Solo il 78% delle parole rientra nelle 3.000 più comuni dell’inglese, quindi il lessico è impegnativo.
Vocaboli chiave di questo video
15 parole del video che vale la pena imparare, con pronuncia e significato:
| Parola | Pronuncia | Significato |
|---|---|---|
| psychology sostantivo | /saɪˈkɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/ | psicologia |
| hemisphere sostantivo | /ˈhɛmɪsfɪə/ | emisfero |
| sensory aggettivo | /ˈsɛn.sə.ɹi/ | sensoriale |
| bone sostantivo | /boʊn/ | osso |
| doll sostantivo | /dɑl/ | bambola |
| temporal aggettivo | /ˈtɛm.pə.ɹəl/ | temporale |
| cerebral aggettivo | /səˈɹi.bɹəl/ | cerebrale |
| gray aggettivo | /ɡɹeɪ/ | grigio |
| reward sostantivo | /ɹɪˈwɔɹd/ | ricompensa |
| cord sostantivo | /ˈkoɹd/ | cordone |
| spinal aggettivo | /spaɪ.nəl/ | spinale |
| evolutionary aggettivo | /ˌiː.vəˈluː.ʃən.ɛɹ.i/ | evoluzionario, evolutivo |
| stimulate verbo | /ˈstɪm.jəˌleɪt/ | stimolare |
| poke verbo | /poʊk/ | ficcare, pungolare |
| ear sostantivo | /ˈɪə̯/ | orecchio, orecchia |
I phrasal verb che sentirai
| Parola | Significato |
|---|---|
| pick up verbo | tirare su, sollevare |
| pass through verbo | trapassare |
| stand up verbo | alzarsi in piedi |
| turn out verbo | risultare |
La grammatica di questo video
Le strutture che chi parla usa di più, con le parole esatte del video:
| Struttura | Nel video |
|---|---|
| Forma passiva be + participio passato — conta ciò che accade, non chi lo fa | was linked · was widely practiced · was dismissed |
| Present perfect have/has + participio passato — un’azione passata che conta ancora adesso | have developed · You've probably seen · have specialized |
| Frasi relative who / which + frase — un’informazione in più su una persona o una cosa | system, which is · brain, which can · Psychology, which was |
Pronuncia a cui fare attenzione
Chi parla usa 18 contrazioni e forme ridotte, come wasn't, gonna, I'd. Pronunciale nella forma breve, così come le senti.
- I suoni “th”: breathe /bɹiːð/, thin /ˈθɪn/, gather /ˈɡæðɚ/
- I suoni “sh” e “zh”: evolutionary /ˌiː.vəˈluː.ʃən.ɛɹ.i/, emotion /ɪˈməʊ.ʃən/, conscious /ˈkɑn.ʃəs/, perception /pɚˈsɛpʃ(ə)n/, physician /fəˈzɪʃən/
- Parole lunghe — attenzione all’accento: psychology /saɪˈkɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/, evolutionary /ˌiː.vəˈluː.ʃən.ɛɹ.i/, biological /ˌbaɪ.əˈlɑ.d͡ʒɪ.kəl/, psychological /ˌsaɪ.kəˈlɑː.d͡ʒɪ.kl̩/, voluntary /ˈvɑ.lənˌt(ɛ)ɹi/
I suoni difficili per chi parla italiano:
- /h/ — va soffiata, non è muta: hemisphere /ˈhɛmɪsfɪə/, whereas /(h)wɛɹˈæz/, hormone /ˈhoɹmoʊn/, hence /ˈhɛns/, heal /ˈhiːl/
- Consonante finale — senza aggiungere una vocale dopo: cortex /ˈkɔɹtɛks/, reward /ɹɪˈwɔɹd/, cord /ˈkoɹd/, stimulate /ˈstɪm.jəˌleɪt/, poke /poʊk/
- /æ/ — più aperta della “e”: whereas /(h)wɛɹˈæz/, shadow /ˈʃædəʊ̯/, establishment /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ.mənt/, gather /ˈɡæðɚ/, graphics /ˈɡɹæfɪks/
Come esercitarsi con questo video
- Ascolta tutto il video una volta senza parlare e annota le parole che non conosci.
- Inizia a velocità 0,75×, fai shadowing frase per frase e torna alla velocità normale quando diventa facile.
- Registrati e confronta con l’originale, facendo attenzione a parole come psychology, hemisphere, sensory.
Cos'è la tecnica dello Shadowing?
Shadowing è una tecnica di apprendimento delle lingue supportata da studi scientifici, originariamente sviluppata per la formazione dei traduttori professionisti e resa popolare dal poliglotta Dr. Alexander Arguelles. Il metodo è semplice ma potente: ascolti un audio in inglese di madrelingua e lo ripeti immediatamente ad alta voce — come un'ombra che segue il parlante con un ritardo di solo 1–2 secondi. A differenza dell'ascolto passivo o degli esercizi di grammatica, lo shadowing costringe il tuo cervello e i muscoli della bocca a elaborare e riprodurre simultaneamente i modelli di discorso reale. La ricerca dimostra che migliora significativamente la precisione della pronuncia, l'intonazione, il ritmo, il discorso connesso, la comprensione dell'ascolto e la fluidità del parlato — rendendolo uno dei metodi più efficaci per la preparazione alla prova di speaking dell'IELTS e per la comunicazione reale in inglese.