シャドーイング練習: CNV analysis with Daniel Howrigan - 動画で英語スピーキングを学ぶ

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Hello.

My name is Daniel Harrigan, and today I'll be talking about how to run copy number variation analysis.

Today's talk, I'll address a couple of questions, namely, what is a copy number variant and how do we detect it with genotype data?

What does the CNV file format look like?

And what does CNV analysis output look like?

Finally, how do I use this to run CNV burden and association tests?

So, what is a copy number variant?

Well, I define it here as a subset of structural variation involving a gain

or duplication or a loss slash deletion of genomic sequence.

Now, I call it a subset of structural variation because structural variation

can encompass basically any change in the length of a genomic sequence

that can be as small as a single base pair insertion

or deletion now most snips that we we think of are just substitutions

so the actual size of the genome isn't changed with a single nucleotide polymorphism

but a structural variant can encompass anything from very small all the way to entire chromosomes.

What we call CNVs, while it being kind of a general name,

falls into the category of roughly at least defined here at minimum one kilobase to submicroscopic.

With array data, we generally say something around 10 to 100 kilobases, given our sensitivity to detect these CNVs,

whereas larger CNVs usually are greater than 500 kilobases up to multiple megabases.

And then we get into much larger events.

Now, I'm not going to get into the details of the mechanisms that cause it.

I've listed a few here.

You can look them up.

But there are different hotspots in the genome

that are more prone to these copy number variants due to repeat regions

or often ways in the machinery that can make mistakes and lead to these gains or losses of genomic sequence.

How do we detect it using genotype data?

So when we run across the genome collecting a bunch of SNPs, I show here kind of the basic mechanism

or at least a figure showing how we take light intensity from different experiments looking at capturing either

you know allele a i have aa as allele a

or the b allele being tt here

and then a heterozygous you can see a mix of both red

and green now we can leverage these allele frequencies

and what we call the b allele frequency

or at least the frequency of of the t in this case now normally

when there's no copy number variant these will be roughly equal

and so will be around 50 percent

when we see something like a large deletion or any sort of deletion we should see a loss of heterozygosity,

and therefore we will see a gap in these B alleles,

at least at any site that you would normally be heterozygote at.

With the duplication, these would be a little bit off, so it would be more like two -thirds,

one -third, and you would see maybe a movement kind of akin to where these pink lines may be going,

even though they don't quite to find that you would see in a duplication

that the b allele frequencies move off 50 but not to one

and zero now that's looking at the b alleles the other thing

we use to detect it is the log r ratio

and this is basically measuring the light intensity and when you see a drop here

where we would see maybe in in all of these calls you should see a drop of say 50 percent

when we have a deletion and you will see subsequently a rise of about 33 percent

for a duplication now i'm not going to get into the details of the colors

that are used to detect these copy number variants suffice to say this is kind of the foundation that it's built upon

What I'm going to talk about next is given

that you've run copy number variant callers here are the kind of QC calls that you're moving into the analysis stage.

Now, I use Plink to analyze the CNV data so you can get a bunch of different file formats,

copy number variants from different callers.

But you would let, you know, if you want to use Plink, you would convert this into this particular file format, which is the .cnv file.

And it's basically individual identifiers, the chromosome, the start and end position of this CNV,

the type, one being a deletion, three being a duplication.

and then also there's a few other fields here the score

and sites field in this example i use the score being say the number of copy number variant callers

that agreed upon this given call

and it could range up to six sites here being the number of snips that are used to call the cnv

Now, I note here that score and sites are not forced into a particular convention.

You could say replace score with the number of genes overlapping the CNV,

or the sites being some other variable that you would be interested in measuring.

Now along with this file, plink creates a .cnv .map file,

and this is basically breaking down the break points of each

cnv into akin to a map file similar to what we have for snip data

and you can see here i note

that every different position is mapped even the the end position

but also maybe a single position after that end

because you may want to do a test an additional final

test after the end of a CNB to see how things have changed.

Note that the CNB file format commands are not available in Plink 1 .9, but the initial version granted the speed ups

that you get using the newer version of Plink aren't all

that applicable here because we're generally dealing with rare variation and

so these file sizes are generally not too large and the sorts of computing that you use is not too heavy.

So what does CNV analysis output look like?

Usually whenever you run a command in Flink looking at your CNV files, you get out .cnv .indiv file.

So this is per sample file where you say the number of cnv segments

that this individual has the number of kilobases that these segments cover

and the average kilobases covered per segment you also get a cnv .summary file

this is akin to the map file that is summarizing the number of affected

and unaffected individuals at any given break point or start, end, and plus one of a CMB.

And this is basically, you know, the output here, while it seems quite simple,

I'll show how with these files you can do quite sophisticated analysis by using a lot of different filters.

So a lot of the magic in Plink is all the flags that you can use to subset your list of CNVs.

So what I have here is a kind of verbose command just to show the optionality available in Plink.

And for each of these, I describe what that function is doing.

So with Plink, you have dash dash C file.

This reads in the CNV and CNV map file.

I want to select only deletions.

I want to select CNVs that are at least 100 kilobases in length.

I want CNVs with a score of four or higher and at least 50 sites.

I want to exclude CNVs that overlap a particular region.

So I can insert a different text file with a list of chromosome and start -end positions here.

And I want to make sure in this exclusion that the CNVs must overlap by at least 50 % to be excluded.

I can also look at frequency where at least 10 CNVs overlap.

I would like to exclude those because maybe I'm more interested in very rare.

100

uh cnvs i can also write out the frequencies of of these of these cnvs as well just

101

so i can guarantee which cnvs are being dropped

102

which cnvs are being kept

103

and then i can run a basic burden test using a permutation model

104

and here i just set the number of permutations these 10 000

105

so you can see there's a lot of different flags here and it's manipulating a lot of these flags

106

that can give you just what you would like in terms of your analysis now granted

107

using the burden tests in plank doesn't handle covariates it basically just looks at something like case control status

108

and so what i recommend is taking the output particularly the cnd cnv .indiv file

109

and reading that into say python or r i prefer r to run more sophisticated models

110

and so you can see when you put more filters here

111

if i go back the number of segments will change depending on what filters,

112

and obviously, subsequently, the number of kilobases covered by these segments will change as a function.

113

And it's kind of iteratively reading in these files at different filtering steps that can produce a wide range of tests.

114

So I've shown a couple figures here that we published when looking at CNV burden in the PGC schizophrenia.

115

So I took in those .CNV .indiv files into R.

116

I ran a logistic regression predicting schizophrenia status and adding a number of covariates,

117

such as principal components, genotype platforms, and then basically as I iteratively ran different

118

uh commands in plank to look at kv cnv counts lengths frequencies whether

119

or not they're in

120

or not in particular regions you can build up a number of tests of overall burn

121

so in this example here this would be all cnvs deletions

122

and duplications stratified by different genotyping platforms and then all together and then b here i'm stratifying by different frequencies

123

and say previously implicated cnvs as a region

124

i want to say in the blue bars we're looking at enrichment here in the green

125

and blue bars but you can see the big deviation here there's a lot of enrichment

126

when we talk about cnvs at this size or at least this frequency i mean

127

and they go away because most of these have been implicated

128

so i've excluded these regions rerun the burden test

129

and you can see that we've captured much of the signal already with previously implicated cnvs

130

so how do we use this to run cnv association tests at individual cnv loci or at individual break points of CNVs.

131

Basically, I would run a very similar command.

132

I could use all the same filters, basically get rid of a number of commands.

133

In particular, you're getting rid of this CNV indiv .perm step, but you still run a permutation test,

134

and what you'll get out is a .cnv .summary .m perm file

135

and at each base position you can run an association test here using permutation

136

this would be the point wise permutation value

137

but there's also a family wise permutation p -value

138

that corrects for all the tests here

139

so this association is run at all possible start

140

and in n plus one positions and one of the things you can do

141

if you like to include covariates in your data at least

142

what i've done in the past is maybe run your logistic

143

regression model with a lot of your covariates pull out the residuals

144

and then use this as a quantitative trait and you can run association mapping in Plink to get p -values that way.

145

So what does this look like?

146

I think having a figure kind of is instructive here.

147

So I plotted

148

through a browser i'll break this down this is our signal at the norexin1 gene

149

so in red we have our deletions uh light red deletions in our schizophrenia cases

150

dark red deletions in our schizophrenia controls i also have duplications in blue

151

which don't make up much of the signal here

152

but as you can see i've also plotted the log negative log 10 p -value.

153

And if you kind of look closely, you can see each little breakpoint, you can see a different test being run.

154

And you can see at, you know, a spot like this where there's many different breakpoints,

155

a lot of granularity, you can run many different tests and kind of get a shape of the association around this gene.

156

Now you can also collapse.

157

Another test that we've done is collapsing across say all the exons of this gene

158

and so this would be akin more to like a gene burden test where you collapse this region

159

and then you test for overlap at that region run a similar model

160

and then you can kind of aggregate all the cnvs and cases and controls to report say a gene -based p -value.

161

So that's a very quick overview of how to run burden and association with CNV data.

162

And a few considerations is that, you know, one of the things that you don't have access to

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when looking at cnvs is imputation and so it is a consideration to think about you know

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there isn't kind of a reference uh you know reference haplotypes

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or a larger data set to do additional qc

166

so there can be additional challenges particularly with subpar data

167

that they can't be rescued in the way

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that imputation uh can rescue uh snip genotypes and on

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that note you know genotyping chip does matter very much

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because you can't impute a bunch of different new sites the

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variability in terms of the number of snips particularly for smaller cnvs is a very kind of important consideration

172

and so you know you can think of in a particular genotyping chip

173

if you don't have a good case control balance there you may not have the sensitivity to properly detect CNVs.

174

And so there's a lot of work

175

that goes into determining at what length of CNVs or at least at what case control balances given your genotyping chip,

176

do you have the right amount of power and sensitivity to do a proper case control association

177

Another thing too, ancestry PCs,

178

most of the CNV hotspots and associated CNV that we see in psychiatric disease aren't very impacted,

179

and mainly that's because these are recurrent de novo CNV areas where there's a higher mutation rate,

180

but this is not really ancestrally defined in terms of the fact

181

that there's not a large difference in the allele frequency of the CNV across different ancestries, but it is still useful to include,

182

particularly as you get to higher frequencies and you get more inherited CNVs. And finally,

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multiple testing correction biopermutation is one of the more robust ways to account for the multiple tests

184

because the nature of cnv data is such

185

that given the type of genotyping chip

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that you use the size of your data set no no

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particular study is going to be very similar to similar to another study and

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that kind of leveraging the correlation structure within your own data set given

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you know your ability to detect CNVs of various sizes

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and frequencies using permutation is usually the best way to go about properly testing for association.

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So if you have any questions, feel free to email me.

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I've also put down some sites.

193

You could search here for the PGC CNV paper that we did in 2017.

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And also, I think the write -up in PLINK on how to do this is really good

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and very descriptive of all its functionality.

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Thank you.

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このレッスンの語彙とスピーキングのポイント

このスピーキングレッスンは、動画「CNV analysis with Daniel Howrigan」を教材にしています。繰り返し出てくる語は次のとおりです：cnv, file, test, deletion, plink。この動画には、シャドーイング用の文が196文、単語が2593語あります。音声の長さは19:53です。話す速さは1分あたり約130語で安定しており、シャドーイングしやすいペースです。英語の頻出3,000語に含まれる単語は77%だけなので、語彙は難しめです。

この動画の重要語彙

動画に出てくる覚えておきたい単語15語を、発音と意味つきで紹介します。

単語	発音	意味
frequency 名詞	/ˈfɹiːkwənsi/	頻度
variant 名詞	/ˈvæɹi.ənt/	変体, 変種
burden 名詞	/ˈbɝdn̩/	積み荷
detect 動詞	/dɪˈtɛkt/	検出する, 見付ける
gene 名詞	/d͡ʒiːn/	遺伝子
filter 名詞	/ˈfɪltɚ/	濾過器, フィルター
segment 名詞	/ˈsɛɡmɛnt/	切片
variation 名詞	/ˌvɛəɹiˈeɪʃn̩/	変動, 変化
format 名詞	/ˈfɔːɹ.mæt/	書式, フォーマット
output 名詞	/ˈaʊtpʊt/	出力
exclude 動詞	/ɪksˈkluːd/	除外する
schizophrenia 名詞	/ˌskɪtsəˈfɹiniə/	統合失調症, 精神分裂病
sequence 名詞	/ˈsiː.kwəns/	順序
collapse 動詞	/kəˈlæps/	潰える, 崩壊する
genome 名詞	/ˈd͡ʒiː.noʊm/	ゲノム

動画に出てくる句動詞

単語	意味
get out 動詞	出て行く
go away 動詞	去る, 出る
go back 動詞	戻る, 帰る

繰り返し練習したい文

動画に出てくる短く完結した文です。日常会話でそのまま使えます。

I've listed a few here.
How do we detect it using genotype data?
I've also put down some sites.

この動画の文法

話し手がよく使っている文型を、動画の実際の表現とともに紹介します。

文型	動画での表現
現在完了形 have/has + 過去分詞 — 過去の出来事が今も関係している	I've listed · you've run · have changed
受動態 be + 過去分詞 — 誰がするかより、何が起きるかに焦点を当てる	isn't changed · is given · are not forced

注意したい発音

話し手はI've, I'm, don'tなど、短縮形や弱形を35回使っています。聞こえたとおりの短い形で発音しましょう。

「sh」と「zh」の音: variation /ˌvɛəɹiˈeɪʃn̩/, structural /ˈstɹʌk(t͡)ʃəɹəl/, consideration /kənˌsɪd.əˈɹeɪ.ʃən/, capture /ˈkæp.(t)ʃɚ/, dash /ˈdæʃ/
長い単語（アクセントの位置に注意）: schizophrenia /ˌskɪtsəˈfɹiniə/, consideration /kənˌsɪd.əˈɹeɪ.ʃən/, sensitivity /ˌsɛn.səˈtɪv.ə.ti/, mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, subsequently /ˈsʌb.sɪ.kwənt.li/

日本語話者が苦手な音：

/r/ と /l/ の区別 — /l/ は舌先を歯茎につけ、/r/ はどこにもつけない: structural /ˈstɹʌk(t͡)ʃəɹəl/, roughly /ˈɹʌf.li/, leverage /ˈlɛv.(ə.)ɹɪd͡ʒ/, variable [ˈvæɹ.i.ə.bl̩], correlation /ˌkɔɹ.əˈleɪ.ʃən/
/v/ — /b/ にならないように、上の歯を下唇に当てる: variant /ˈvæɹi.ənt/, variation /ˌvɛəɹiˈeɪʃn̩/, overlap /ˌəʊvəˈlæp/, sensitivity /ˌsɛn.səˈtɪv.ə.ti/, leverage /ˈlɛv.(ə.)ɹɪd͡ʒ/
/f/ — 「フ」ではなく、上の歯と下唇で出す: frequency /ˈfɹiːkwənsi/, filter /ˈfɪltɚ/, format /ˈfɔːɹ.mæt/, schizophrenia /ˌskɪtsəˈfɹiniə/, define /dɪˈfaɪn/

この動画での練習方法

まず声を出さずに動画を最後まで聞き、知らない単語をメモします。
通常の速度で一文ずつシャドーイングし、話し手のリズムに合うまで繰り返します。
自分の声を録音して元の音声と比べます。frequency, variant, burdenなどの単語に特に注意しましょう。

シャドーイングとは？英語上達に効果的な理由

シャドーイング（Shadowing）は、もともとプロの通訳者養成プログラムで開発された言語学習法で、多言語習得者として知られるDr. Alexander Arguelles によって広く普及されました。方法はシンプルですが非常に効果的：ネイティブスピーカーの英語を聞きながら、1〜2秒の遅延で声に出してすぐに繰り返す——まるで「影（shadow）」のように話者を追いかけます。文法ドリルや受動的なリスニングと異なり、シャドーイングは脳と口の筋肉が同時にリアルタイムで英語を処理・再現することを強制します。研究により、発音精度、抑揚、リズム、連音、リスニング力、そして会話の流暢さが大幅に向上することが確認されています。IELTSスピーキング対策や自然な英語コミュニケーションを目指す方に特におすすめです。

シャドーイングのやり方: ステップ別の完全ガイドを読む →

シャドーイング練習: CNV analysis with Daniel Howrigan - 動画で英語スピーキングを学ぶ

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