쉐도잉 연습: Glycolysis - 영상으로 영어 말하기 배우기

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Welcome back to the high -yield biochemistry series.

This is brought to you by Dirty Medicine.

In today's video, we're going to continue our discussion about the biochemical pathways and talk about glycolysis.

Glycolysis is typically the first biochemical pathway that you learn when you're learning about biochemistry, and it's because of that that it's extremely high -yield.

It shows up on exams all of the time.

Now, when you're learning about glycolysis, as you'll see me mention throughout this video, it's really important to remember the bigger picture.

And when I say that, I'm referring to things like what is the function or the role of glycolysis?

What are we taking as a reactant and turning into a product?

And what are the regulatory mechanisms in terms of feedback?

So what makes this go forward?

What inhibits this?

And what is the rate limiting enzyme?

Just like all of the biochemistry videos that I've created, you need to know the rate -limiting enzyme and the regulatory mechanisms.

So we're talking about things like inhibitors, etc. So let's start with a quick overview of glycolysis.

Glycolysis is an irreversible biochemical reaction that occurs in the cytoplasm.

The net equation for glycolysis is that you start with glucose, and the goal is to take that glucose and turn it into pyruvate,

where it can downstream take multiple pathways through that pyruvate pathway

and preferentially usually this goes into the citric acid cycle

but here's the net equation you've you start with glucose

and you add two phosphates two adps and two nads

and what you get out of

that is two 2 pyruvates plus 2 ATPs plus 2 NADH plus 2 hydrogens plus 2 waters.

But if you wanted to just think very simply about what glycolysis is doing,

it's taking glucose and breaking that glucose down into storable products that the body can use in other biochemical pathways.

So now that we've understood the overview of glycolysis, let's just get into the meat and potatoes here.

We're going to talk about the pathway.

You need to understand the pathway, and I'm going to pay very special attention to the regulatory mechanisms of this pathway and the rate -limiting enzyme.

So you start with glucose, right?

Any person takes a bite of a cheeseburger, eats a french fry, drinks a milkshake, and they've got a bunch of carbohydrate in their body.

And that carbohydrate is composed usually of glucose.

And if it's not of glucose, then the other types of sugars will get turned into glucose so

that glycolysis can utilize

it the first step is glucose will get turned into glucose

6 -phosphate glucose 6 -phosphate will get turned into fructose

6 -phosphate fructose 6 -phosphate will get turned into fructose 1 -6 -bisphosphate

and now you've got like multiple steps

that are going to happen there's going to be four

or five more reactions in this pathway and you'll end up with phosphoenolpyruvate which will get turned into pyruvate.

And going from glucose down to pyruvate is the entire glycolysis pathway.

So when you get to pyruvate you're basically finished with glycolysis.

Now let's talk about the important enzymes that you need to know.

So the first step that converts glucose to glucose 6 -phosphate, there's actually two different enzymes

that can be used depending on the circumstances of the glucose concentration and where in the body we're talking about.

So those two enzymes are glucokinase and hexokinase.

So to be perfectly clear, either glucokinase or hexokinase can convert glucose to glucose 6 -phosphate.

And what you'll need to know for test day that's really high yield is to understand under

which circumstances both of these enzymes might be used.

So for glucokinase, this enzyme has a low affinity and a high

Km, Just remember the reciprocal relationship between affinity and Km.

The higher the Km, the lower the enzyme has an affinity for its substrate.

So glucokinase has a low affinity for glucose.

It typically doesn't want to go and grab glucose.

And the reason for this is because glucokinase acts as a glucose sensor.

It's present in the liver and the pancreatic beta cells, and it's only used when glucose is at high concentrations.

So basically what you should think of glucokinase as is an emergency enzyme that is acting as a glucose sensor.

And it's really not grabbing glucose because instead of grabbing glucose and breaking it down through glycolysis,

what it's doing is it's sensing glucose and it's going, okay, let's test how much glucose is over here.

uh that's okay we're not going to jump in yet um hexokinase you go first

so hexokinase on the other hand that is a high affinity enzyme

which means it has a low km and

because it has high affinity for its substrate hexokinase is the one that's constantly going to be latching onto glucose

and converting it to glucose 6 -phosphate and sending it down the glycolysis pathway

and the reason for that is because hexokinase is the enzyme that's used to operate the basal glucose metabolism.

So constantly throughout your body in all of your tissues, you have this enzyme hexokinase that's just keeping a basal level of glucose metabolism present.

It's trying to make sure that your glucose level is adequate throughout the body in all of the tissues.

But if hexokinase becomes overwhelmed because suddenly there's a massive influx of glucose, that is when hexokinase turns to glucokinase and says,

glucose, I know you usually have a low affinity, but I really need some help now because the glucose concentration is high.

So if you think about it, that's the reason that glucokinase is only found in the liver and the pancreatic beta cells,

because it does a very specific regulatory job where it's only acting when the blood glucose levels are super, super high.

When that concentration reaches some critical point, that's when glucokinase in the liver and the pancreatic beta cells jumps in to save hexokinase.

So the takeaway from this slide is that both glucokinase

and hexokinase are enzymes that catalyze that conversion from glucose to glucose 6 -phosphate.

The only difference is that hexokinase is kind of there all of the time, making a basal level of glucose, and glucokinase jumps in in emergencies.

But understand the differences between those two enzymes that I've put in the gray boxes.

They are extremely high yield and probably will show up on your test.

So here's where we are.

We've talked about the enzymes in the first step.

The enzyme that converts fructose 6 -phosphate to fructose 1 ,6 -bisphosphate is the rate -limiting enzyme of glycolysis,

and that's phosphofructokinase 1.

Sometimes you'll hear this referred to as PFK1.

So PFK1, or phosphofructokinase 1, is the rate -limiting enzyme, and it converts fructose 6 -phosphate to fructose 1 ,6 -bisphosphate.

Now, I told you at the start of this video

that the very important thing to keep in mind for USMLE and Comlex is the regulatory mechanisms.

And what I mean when I say regulatory mechanisms are what inhibits this pathway and what promotes this pathway.

And we're going to talk about that for the first time right here.

And because phosphofructokinase 1 is the rate -limiting enzyme,

it's really high yield to understand what inhibits phosphofructokinase 1 and what promotes phosphofructokinase 1.

And that's what you see here.

So ATP and citrate will inhibit the rate -limiting enzyme PFK1,

but AMP will promote the rate -limiting enzyme of PFK1.

And this should be somewhat intuitive to you.

So think about what glycolysis is doing.

The role of glycolysis is to take glucose, convert it to pyruvate and ATP,

and then let that pyruvate enter one of many different pathways, but usually the citric acid cycle where you'll then create citrate.

So if you think about that,

the question becomes, what would this pathway want to do if it already had ATP and therefore didn't need to make it,

or if it already had citrate and therefore didn't need to make pyruvate, which would then go to citrate.

And that's why ATP and citrate inhibit PFK1, because if you have ATP and you already have citrate, then you don't need to do glycolysis.

So the presence of those products will inhibit the rate -limiting enzyme, and therefore glycolysis won't occur.

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Now, likewise, think about AMP.

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If you have AMP, which is monophosphate, only one, you don't have ATP.

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And therefore, if you don't have ATP, you want to do glycolysis.

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So in the presence of AMP, which is to say in a situation where you don't have ATP,

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AMP will promote PFK1 and will therefore promote glycolysis.

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So anytime you're not really sure about how the regulatory mechanisms are working, think about this intuitively.

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Ask yourself on test say, well, would glycolysis happen if there was AMP?

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Would glycolysis happen if there was citrate?

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It should make sense to you if you understand what the big picture role of these pathways are.

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So that's what promotes and inhibits PFK1.

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Now I need to pause for a second and tell you about this little nuance of glycolysis.

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So fructose 6 -phosphate can go to fructose 1 ,6 -bisphosphate as you see on this slide.

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But additionally, there's sort of a side step that occurs, a pivot if you will.

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Fructose 6 -phosphate can also become fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate.

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And if fructose 6 -phosphate will become fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate,

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the enzyme that catalyzes this conversion is phosphofructokinase 2, PFK2.

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So very similarly named, of course, to the rate limiting enzyme that we just talked about, but instead of 1, it's 2.

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So when this happens, you create fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate.

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And interestingly, that fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate will promote PFK1.

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So the goal when the body does this is to make glycolysis happen faster.

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Now the question then becomes what is promoting or inhibiting phosphofructokinase 2 or PFK2?

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And that's really simple.

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So it's going to be inhibited by glucagon and it's going to be promoted by insulin.

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So think about it.

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If fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate makes glycolysis happen faster.

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And in glycolysis, you're breaking down glucose.

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It makes sense that insulin will promote PFK2 because in the presence of glucose,

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the body's going to secrete insulin and the body's telling anything that any cell that has a glycolysis pathway occurring, it's like, yo, take that glucose,

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break it down, please get this out of the system.

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And that's insulin's role.

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The opposite of that is glucagon.

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Glucagon's putting the brakes on this pathway and saying, yo, chill, we need to reverse this and make energy available because blood glucose is low.

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So think about it, guys.

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Insulin will promote PFK2 because it will make fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate, which feeds back to PFK1 and makes this happen faster.

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But in another situation, glucagon will inhibit PFK2 because PFK2 would normally make fructose 2 ,6 -bisphosphate,

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which would feed back to PFK1 and make this process happen faster.

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So again, understanding the big picture about what glycolysis is actually doing helps you understand the regulatory mechanisms

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that you need to memorize for your test.

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So the takeaway from this slide is that PFK2 inhibited by glucagon and promoted by insulin.

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The last enzyme that we need to talk about is the enzyme that converts phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate, the last step of glycolysis.

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That enzyme is pyruvate kinase.

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And just like PFK1, this is going to be inhibited by ATP and citrate for the same exact reasons.

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And those reasons are, again, glycolysis wants to create ATP.

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Glycolysis wants to make pyruvate, which can then become citrate in the TCA cycle.

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So therefore, if you already have ATP or you already have citrate, what's the point?

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You don't need to do glycolysis.

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So the presence of those products will inhibit the enzymes that usually make glycolysis work.

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So guys, that's it for glycolysis.

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And you're probably sitting there starting to have a panic attack thinking about, whoa, dirty.

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What about all the other enzymes?

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Don't worry about the other enzymes.

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This is what you need to know for USMLE and Comlex.

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You need to know the enzymes I put in these slides, the regulatory mechanisms that I put in these slides,

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and understand the difference between glucokinase and hexokinase that we discussed at the beginning of this video.

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All of the other intermediary steps, you don't need to know them.

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You really don't.

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They're not going to show up on your test unless you're taking a college level or intro to biochemistry course.

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You really don't need to know them.

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If you do want to know them for completeness sake, I would encourage you to go online, look at some diagrams, memorize some enzymes.

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But this is what you need to know to answer 99 % of the questions that will show up on USMLE,

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Comlex, your question banks, your practice tests, et cetera.

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So again, and I cannot stress this enough because it's the biggest theme for all of biochemistry.

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Know the rate limiting enzyme, know the regulatory mechanisms.

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And if you get stuck on test day about what's inhibiting or what's promoting, ask yourself, what's the goal of this pathway?

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And therefore, what do I think might happen?

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That's it.

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If you liked this video, drop me a like or a comment in the comment section.

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Please remember to check my Patreon page.

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and support the channel love you good luck

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이 레슨의 어휘와 말하기 포인트

가장 자주 반복되는 단어는 다음과 같습니다: glucose, glycolysis, enzyme, pathway, fructose. 이 영상에는 섀도잉할 문장 170개와 단어 2233개가 있습니다. 말하는 구간의 길이는 14:16입니다. 화자는 분당 약 156단어로, 일상 대화에 가까운 자연스러운 속도로 말합니다. 영어에서 가장 많이 쓰이는 3,000단어에 속하는 단어가 76%뿐이라 어휘가 어려운 편입니다.

이 영상의 핵심 어휘

영상에 나오는 익혀 둘 만한 단어 15개를 발음, 뜻과 함께 정리했습니다.

단어	발음	뜻
glucose 명사	/ˈɡluː.kəʊz/	포도당, 글루코스
enzyme 명사	/ˈɛn.zaɪm/	효소
mechanism 명사	/ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/	기구, 메커니즘
slide 명사	/ˈslaɪ̯d/	미끄럼틀, 미끄럼대
yield 동사	/jiːld/	생산하다
insulin 명사	/ˈɪnsəlɪn/	인슐린
occur 동사	/əˈkɜː/	일어나다, 발생하다
concentration 명사	/ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/	집중, 집중력
beta 명사	/ˈbeɪtə/	베타
acid 명사	/ˈæsɪd/	산
refer 동사	/ɹɪˈfɜː/	언급하다
tissue 명사	/ˈtɪʃ.(j)u/	조직
overview 명사	/ˈoʊ.vɚˌvjuː/	개요
equation 명사	/ɪˈkweɪ.ʒən/	방정식
sensor 명사	/ˈsɛn.sɚ/	센서

따라 말해 볼 만한 문장

영상에 나오는 짧고 완결된 문장으로, 일상 대화에서 그대로 쓸 수 있습니다:

What are we taking as a reactant and turning into a product?
We're going to talk about the pathway.
We've talked about the enzymes in the first step.
You don't need to do glycolysis.
You really don't need to know them.

이 영상의 문법

화자가 가장 많이 쓰는 문형을 영상 속 실제 표현과 함께 정리했습니다.

문형	영상 속 표현
수동태 be + 과거분사 — 누가 하는지보다 무슨 일이 일어나는지에 초점	is brought · is composed · is only found
현재완료 have/has + 과거분사 — 과거의 일이 지금도 관련이 있을 때	I've created · we've understood · I've put
관계절 who / which + 절 — 사람이나 사물에 대한 추가 정보	phosphoenolpyruvate which will · AMP, which is · pyruvate, which can

주의할 발음

화자는 don't, you're, we're 같은 축약형과 약화된 형태를 41번 사용합니다. 들리는 대로 짧게 발음하세요.

“sh”와 “zh” 소리: concentration /ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/, tissue /ˈtɪʃ.(j)u/, conversion /kənˈvɝʒən/, equation /ɪˈkweɪ.ʒən/, donation /doʊˈneɪʃən/
긴 단어 — 강세 위치에 주의: regulatory /ˈɹɛɡ.jʊ.lə.t(ɔː.)ɹi/, mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, affinity /əˈfɪnɪti/, concentration /ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/, metabolism /məˈtæb.əˌlɪz.əm/

한국어 화자가 어려워하는 소리:

/f/ — ㅍ(/p/)으로 바꾸지 말고 윗니를 아랫입술에 대기: affinity /əˈfɪnɪti/, refer /ɹɪˈfɜː/, feedback /ˈfiːdˌbæk/, influx /ˈɪnˌflʌks/, fructose /ˈfɹʌk.toʊs/
/v/ — ㅂ(/b/)과 구별하기: convert /kənˈvɝt/, conversion /kənˈvɝʒən/, overview /ˈoʊ.vɚˌvjuː/, reverse /ɹɪˈvɝs/, intuitive /ɪnˈtjuːɪtɪv/
/z/ — ㅈ이 아니라 성대를 울리는 /s/: glucose /ˈɡluː.kəʊz/, enzyme /ˈɛn.zaɪm/, mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, metabolism /məˈtæb.əˌlɪz.əm/, exam /ɪɡˈzæm/

이 영상으로 연습하는 방법

먼저 말하지 않고 영상을 끝까지 듣고 모르는 단어를 적어 둡니다.
0.75배속으로 한 문장씩 섀도잉을 시작하고, 익숙해지면 보통 속도로 돌아갑니다.
자신의 목소리를 녹음해 원본과 비교하고, glucose, enzyme, mechanism 같은 단어에 특히 주의합니다.

쉐도잉이란? 영어 실력을 빠르게 키우는 과학적 방법

쉐도잉(Shadowing)은 원래 전문 통역사 훈련을 위해 개발된 언어 학습 기법으로, 다언어 학자인 Dr. Alexander Arguelles에 의해 대중화된 방법입니다. 핵심 원리는 간단하지만 매우 강력합니다: 원어민의 영어를 들으면서 1~2초의 짧은 지연으로 즉시 소리 내어 따라 말하는 것——마치 '그림자(shadow)'처럼 화자를 따라가는 것입니다. 문법 공부나 수동적인 청취와 달리, 쉐도잉은 뇌와 입 근육이 동시에 실시간으로 영어를 처리하고 재현하도록 훈련합니다. 연구에 따르면 이 방법은 발음 정확도, 억양, 리듬, 연음, 청취력, 말하기 유창성을 크게 향상시킵니다. IELTS 스피킹 준비와 자연스러운 영어 소통을 원하는 분들에게 특히 효과적입니다.

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쉐도잉 연습: Glycolysis - 영상으로 영어 말하기 배우기

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