Практика Shadowing: This 'Ugly' Jet Could Strike in Any Weather – And Nothing Could Replace It - Изучайте разговорный английский по видео

Once upon a time, the United States Navy had an aircraft that could find and attack a target in almost any weather, day or night.

It carried more bombs than anything else on the carrier deck, and it later became a tanker,

a radar hunter, and the foundation of one of America's most important electronic warfare aircraft.

But here's the twist.

This jet was subsonic, it was not winning any beauty contests, and yet like your grandfather's old pickup truck,

it simply got the job done.

This was the Grumman A6 intruder and wherever it went it flew with a woman named Diane.

But if the If the intruder was this capable, why did the Navy retire it without a true replacement?

To understand that, we need to go back to one pitch black night over North Vietnam.

October 30, 1967.

Some were in the darkness above the Gulf of Tonkin.

The aircraft carrier USS Constellation was preparing to launch an attack against one of most heavily defended targets in North Vietnam.

The Hanoi Railroad ferry slip helped move military supplies through the heart of the North Vietnamese capital.

It was protected by surface-to-air missile batteries, radar-directed guns, and a defense belt of anti-aircraft artillery.

Large daylight strike packages had already gone after it.

They had not destroyed it.

So that night, the Navy tried something very different.

They sent one airplane.

Inside the cockpit of an A-6A intruder,

Lieutenant Commander Charlie Hunter sat beside his Bombardier Navigator or BN Lieutenant Lyle Bull.

Their aircraft was not sleek, it was not supersonic, and with its wide nose and slightly awkward proportions,

no one was going to mistake this jet for an F-4 Phantom.

But the intruder had been built for exactly this kind of mission.

You see, while Hunter concentrated on flying,

Bull worked the aircraft's radar and navigation equipment beneath a padded viewing hood called the Boot.

This boot had a very important purpose, to keep the glow of the radar displays from destroying the pilots night vision.

Together they flew toward Hanoi at extremely low altitude, using the terrain to hide their approach.

But then the warning receivers came alive.

Enemy radar had found them.

Hunter maneuvered violently to break the tracking solution, then pushed the intruder even lower.

the A6 descended into darkness, skimming beneath the engagement envelope of the missiles that were searching for it.

Bull continued guiding them toward the target.

Remember, there are no outside lights, there's no clear horizon, and there's definitely no visual reference beyond whatever appeared in the windscreen for a few fleeting seconds.

Hunter was flying the airplane, but Bull and the intruder's electronics were telling him where the world was.

After some time, the A6 reached the fairy slip, released its bombs and disappeared back into the darkness.

Hunter and Boal returned to the constellation and were later awarded the navy cross.

This mission demonstrated why the intruder was built different.

Sure the F4 could fly faster and other aircraft looked better on recruiting posters, but when the target was hidden beneath clouds,

darkness and enemy defenses, the A6 could still find it and attack it.

And that raises an important question.

How did a heavy subsonic aircraft with nicknames like the Iron Tadpole, Double Ugly, the Drumstick,

and even Mighty Alpha 6 become one of the most capable attack jets ever launched from an aircraft carrier?

And more importantly, why did the Navy retire it?

Well, to understand that, we have to begin with a forgotten war in which the weather repeatedly won.

During the Korean War, the Navy relied heavily on strike aircraft such as the Douglas A-1 Skyraider.

The Skyraider was an extraordinary attack aircraft.

It could carry a large payload, remain over the battlefield for hours, and absorb punishment that would have sent lighter aircraft home.

In many ways, it was the grandfather of the A-10 Warthog.

But the Skyraider belonged to a world in which the pilot visually needed to see the target it.

When low clouds, fog, snow, or even darkness obscured the battlefield, accurate attack became much more difficult.

Because of this, the enemy at the time could use poor weather or darkness to move vehicles,

troops, and supplies with less fear of being detected from the air.

To solve this, the Navy wanted an aircraft that would remove the weather from the enemy's list of defenses.

In the second half of the 1950s, it issued requirements for a carrier-based attack aircraft that would be capable of operating day or night,

in clear weather or in almost complete obscuration.

This aircraft would need to carry a heavy payload over significant distances, and of course it would need to take off and land on an aircraft carrier.

To meet these requirements, the new aircraft would need to find and strike targets without depending entirely on the crew's eyesight.

Several manufacturers submitted proposals, and looking back it really was a list of who's from the 1950s.

Bell, Boeing, Douglas, Grumman, Lockheed,

Martin, North American, and Vought all submitted proposals.

In the end, Grumman, with its already established history of naval aircraft production, won with its G-128 design,

which became the YA2F1 prototype.

The prototype first flew in April of 1960, and even at that early stage it was clear that Grumman was willing to try unusual solutions.

One of the strangest of these was located at the back of the engines.

Early prototypes had exhaust pipes that could tilt downward.

Now, this wasn't thrust vectoring in the modern F-22 sense, more like proto-thrust vectoring.

The intruder was not going to point its nose across the sky during a dogfight.

Instead, Grumman hoped that redirecting part the exhaust downward up to 23 degrees would create additional lift

and reduce the aircraft's approach speed during a carrier landing.

The idea sounded promising, but flight testing revealed that the benefit was small.

The moving tailpipes added weight, mechanical complexity, and another system that sailors would have to maintain at sea.

Therefore, the nozzles were eventually fixed in place at about 7 degrees downward.

Now, what this meant in reality was that the production intruder would reach the fleet without those moving tailpipes, but at the end of the day,

they were an early sign of how seriously Grumman took the carrier approach problem.

Remember, these are non-afterburning engines.

And speaking of early design issues, another problem involved the speed brakes.

The original aircraft used speed brakes mounted near the rear fuselage, but when they opened, they disturbed the airflow reaching the tail and produced severe buffeting.

Grumman responded by developing a far more distinctive system.

The outer wing surfaces could split open like a clamshell.

These devices, called decelerons, created drag while also functioning as part of the aircraft's lateral control system.

And they looked unusual because, well, the aircraft itself was unusual, and that was intentional.

Every part of the intruder had been shaped or on a mission that few other tactical aircraft at the time could perform.

By 1963, the A6A Intruder was entering fleet service.

And while the aircraft was certainly not graceful, its appearance made more sense once you understood what Grumman had placed inside of it.

The Intruder arrived to the fleet during an era obsessed with speed.

The carrier-based F-4 Phantom could exceed Mach 2.

Interceptors like the F-106 Delta Dart were climbing higher, flying faster, and carrying increasingly powerful missiles.

The A-6, however, went in the opposite direction.

It was subsonic by design.

Now, that sounds like a disadvantage, but an attack aircraft carrying fuel tanks and thousands of pounds of ordnance

was unlikely to spend much of its time at supersonic speed anyway.

External weapons produced enormous drag, and afterburners consumed fuel at a tremendous rate.

For these reasons, the intruder traded headline speed for payload, range, and low altitude stability.

Its swept wing was optimized for efficient subsonic flight.

And by the way, many details on that wing were later used on the F-14 Tomcat.

The intruder was powered by two Pratt & Whitney J-52 turbojets, which provided the power without afterburner,

and five external hardpoints on the fuselage allowed the aircraft to carry fuel,

bombs, rockets, missiles, or even naval mines.

Depending on the mission, the intruder could carry approximately 18,000 pounds of external stores.

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That placed a bomber-sized payload on the deck of an aircraft carrier less than 20 years after World War II.

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But the most important feature of the intruder wasn't under the wings or even the engines, it was actually inside the cockpit.

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Unlike the tandem arrangement used by the Phantom and many other fighters, the intruder placed its two crew members beside one another.

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The pilot sat on the left.

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The Bombardier Navigator, or BN, sat slightly lower and farther back on the right.

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Now, this was done to give the pilot as much visibility as possible.

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That arrangement, of course, resulted in the broad nose of the intruder, which contributes to the aircraft's distinctive appearance.

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But it also allowed the crew to work almost as a single unit.

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The pilot handled the aircraft in the flying.

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Meanwhile, the BN managed navigation, radar weapons, and much of the attack system.

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And because they sat shoulder to shoulder, each man could sense what the other was doing.

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A glance, a gesture, or a change in body position could communicate something before either crewman spoke.

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And that close coordination became essential, because the intruder's mission often required the crew to fly through weather or darkness at low altitude,

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an environment where even a small misunderstanding could become fatal.

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But two men were only part of the system.

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The third member of the crew was the airplane itself and Diane.

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At the heart of the A6 was the Digital Integrated Attack Navigation Equipment System,

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better known as Diane.

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Now one aviation history claims that the name may have been inspired by the daughter of a Grumman design leader, with the acronym created afterward.

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But that story remains an intriguing, unconfirmed piece of intruder folklore.

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Let me know in the comments below what you've heard.

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Despite its origin, the name does not sound especially dramatic, but its effect most definitely was.

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In an era before aircraft had GPS, digital moving maps, and modern multifunction displays,

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Diane combined radar, inertial navigation, air data information, and a computerized bombing system.

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The search radar allowed the crew to map terrain and identify prominent features.

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A tracking radar helped refine the attack.

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Meanwhile, the inertial navigation system estimated the aircraft's position, while Doppler information helped correct accumulated drift.

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The BN managed these systems and interpreted the radar picture.

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The pilot received steering and flight information through the Vertical Display Indicator or VDI.

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What this meant that instead of depending entirely on what could be seen through the canopy, the pilot could follow an electronic representation of the aircraft's altitude,

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course, and relationship to the terrain.

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Today, synthetic displays and computer-generated steering cues are normal.

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But in the early 1960s, they bordered on science fiction.

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Another interesting thing about Diane was that it also proved that Grumman could bring radars,

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computers, navigation equipment, cockpit displays, and two human operators together as one integrated system.

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And that experience would soon become valuable far beyond the carrier deck.

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In 1962, NASA selected Grumman to build the Apollo Lunar Module.

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Now, Diane did not directly become the spacecraft's guidance system, and the official selection record does not say that the intruder won grum in the contract

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but the systems engineering culture behind the a6 definitely played a

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role in preparing the company for an even greater challenge building the machine

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that would carry astronauts down to the surface of the moon

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so you could say in a roundabout way

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that the intruder got us to the moon now remember this

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is early 1960s technology as you can imagine early diane equipment was complex and temperamental.

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It demanded skilled maintainers, careful troubleshooting, and an enormous amount of patience.

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And it didn't help that humidity, vibration, and carrier operations were not kind to those delicate electronics.

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As a result, the A6 initially developed a reputation for spending too much time on the ground, a hanger queen of sorts.

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But the Navy and Grumman continued improving the system, and the maintainers learned how to keep it operating.

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Once they did, the intruder could perform missions that few other aircraft could match.

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A crew could launch at night, navigate through poor weather, identify a radar significant target,

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calculate a release point, and deliver weapons without ever obtaining a normal visual view of the objective.

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And that capability also made the A6 suitable for one of the Cold War's darkest assignments, nuclear strike.

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Intruder crews trained for low altitude delivery profiles in which the aircraft would approach at a high speed,

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begin a steep climb, and release the weapon as the computer calculated the correct release point.

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The weapon would continue forward in an arcing trajectory, while the intruder reversed direction and attempted to escape.

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But let's pause for a moment.

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Did a subsonic non-afterburning attack airplane really have great odds of coming back?

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Intruder crews develop the kind of dark humor that only makes sense

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when your mission involves throwing a B-61 nuclear bomb over your shoulder.

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At detonation, both crewmen were supposed to close one eye to protect it from the flash.

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Now, the joke among intruder crews was that the pilot would close both eyes while the BN kept both his eyes open.

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Because once the bomb was released, the BN's job was finished.

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And of course, this is just pilot humor.

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Officially, this was not a one-way mission.

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The weapon was lofted high into the air, sometimes descending beneath a parachute, while the intruder reversed course and raced away at low altitude.

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But surviving your own bomb blast did not mean surviving the war.

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In the wider Navy attack community, the nuclear mission inspired a darker description.

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One aircraft, one bomb, one way.

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For the two men inside the intruder, the flight plan included a return leg, but nobody could promise there would still be a carrier waiting at the end of it.

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It was a mission that everyone trained for and hoped never to fly.

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But even before the intruder could prove itself in that role, it was sent to fight a conventional war in Southeast Asia.

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And like many other weapon platforms of the time,

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Vietnam would reveal both the brilliance and the limitations of Grumman's newest attack aircraft.

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The A6 entered combat in 1965 with VA-75, the Sunday Punchers.

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They operated from the USS Independence.

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By the way, Sunday Punchers apparently is a boxing term from the 1940s.

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I had no idea, but it means giving it your best shot or delivering your best blow.

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Those first deployments for the intruder were, of course, difficult.

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The aircraft's electronics required constant attention, components failed, and maintenance hours accumulated.

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Early weapon systems problems also created serious concern for the crews that were carrying live ordnance.

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Now, despite all these challenges, the intruder was doing what it was designed for, operate in environments where many other aircraft simply could not.

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And gradually, as reliability improved, the A6 became one of the Navy's preferred aircraft for night and poor weather interdiction.

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Intruder crews frequently flew alone at low altitude, searching for roads, bridges, rail lines, and supply routes.

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When they did this, they did not have the protection of a large formation

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and the darkness that concealed them from the enemy also concealed mountains, towers, and the ground.

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But the aircraft and Diane could help the crew navigate through that environment.

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It just couldn't make the environment safe.

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Unfortunately, the Navy and Marine Corps lost dozens of intruders during the Vietnam War.

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Some fell to anti-aircraft guns, others to surface-to-air missiles, fighters, or even weather or operational accidents.

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The aircraft was rugged, but it was not invulnerable.

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And the men sitting side by side in that cockpit often depended completely on one another.

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Here's one story that stands out.

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On April 27, 1966, Lieutenant William Westerman

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and Lieutenant junior grade Brian Weston were flying an A6 from VA-85 during an attack near Vinn.

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Ground fire struck the cockpit and badly wounded Westerman, the pilot.

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With the pilot losing consciousness, Weston helped keep the damaged aircraft under control and directed it away from the hostile coast out to sea.

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They managed to reach the water before ejecting.

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But even after escaping the aircraft, Weston's job was not finished.

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Weston was severely wounded and struggling to survive.

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Weston, through several acts of bravery and courage, ensured that his pilot was recovered and returned for medical treatment before accepting rescue himself.

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For his actions, Weston received the navy cross

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and westermen survive this incident highlights why the right seat of

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an intruder was never merely a passenger position the bn of course did not normally fly the aircraft

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but he was a full partner in the mission

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and sometimes the reason both men came home tragically other crews

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were not as fortunate in august of 1967 a group of intruders operating near hanoi became separated amid weather missiles

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and anti-aircraft fire.

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Two aircraft crossed into Chinese airspace and were intercepted by Chinese fighters.

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Both intruders were shot down.

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Three crewmen were killed in action.

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The sole survivor, Bob Flynn, was captured by China and spent years in confinement before being released in 1973.

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The incident underlined a difficult truth.

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Diane could show crews the path through darkness and cloud, but navigation systems of that era still accumulated errors.

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Weather could overwhelm formations, enemy defenses could force crews away from their planned routes.

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However, it's important to note that the Intruder was of course the first all-weather attack aircraft.

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As the Vietnam conflict wore on, it also revealed that the A6's size, payload, and two-man cockpit could support far more than just conventional bombing.

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As new threats appeared, Grumman adapted the airframe to meet them.

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The A6B was developed for the dangerous mission of suppressing enemy air defenses or SEED.

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Similar to the Wild Weasel missions flown by the Air Force's F-105s,

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intruder crews carried equipment capable of locating hostile radar emissions and carried weapons designed to follow those emissions back towards their source.

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Sort of like reach out and touch someone.

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The mission demanded patience, steady nerves, and a willingness to bait the enemy into revealing itself.

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So as you can imagine, the intruder crews had to have brass fortitude.

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Following the B version, the A6C addressed a different problem.

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North Vietnamese trucks and supplies often moved along the Ho Chi Minh trail at night and beneath heavy vegetation.

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The A6C carried the trim sensor installation,

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which combined infrared and low light systems intended to help crews detect activity that normal vision would miss.

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Then there was the Ka-6D.

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The intruder's ability to carry large external loads made it a natural tanker.

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In the Ka-6D, much of the attack equipment was removed and replaced by a hose and drogue refueling system.

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Now, the tanker version rarely receives the attention that's been given to the bombers in the attack aircraft, but to a pilot returning from combat with nearly empty fuel tanks,

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the Ka-6D might have been the most beautiful aircraft in in the entire air wing.

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And finally, the A6E became the definitive attack version, and also the most produced.

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The E version incorporated improved radar, navigation equipment, and computers.

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Later versions received the Target Recognition, Attack, and Multisensor System or TRAM.

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The small turret beneath the nose contained infrared and laser designation equipment.

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This allowed the crew to detect, identify, and designate targets with far greater precision, including at night.

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The aircraft that had begun as an all-weather bomber was becoming a precision strike platform,

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but arguably the most successful member of the family would eventually stop carrying bombs altogether.

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The EA-6B Prowler stretched the intruder's basic design to accommodate four crew members and a powerful electronic warfare suite.

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Its job was to interfere with hostile radar, protect strike aircraft, and attack the enemy's ability to detect and engage the formation.

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Incredibly, the Prowler would remain in service until 2019, more than two decades after the final A6 left the Navy.

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And that longevity says a lot about the original Grumman design.

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Now the Prowler will be the subject of its own upcoming video in an upcoming series.

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This is called an easter egg in case you're wondering.

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At the end of its run, the A6 family was a large, stable platform with the electrical power,

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internal volume, and payload capacity to keep accepting new equipment.

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And by the 1980s, the attack version was still proving that it could remain relevant.

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The intruder was about to enter its second war.

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In April of 1986, A6Es participated in Operation El Dorado Canyon.

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striking targets in Libya alongside Air Force F-111s.

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The operation demanded long-range navigation, night attack, and precise coordination,

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the same problems that the intruder had originally been created to solve.

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Just two years later, during Operation Praying Mantis, intruders attacked Iranian naval forces in the Persian Gulf.

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A-6 crews used precision-guided weapons against warships, helping cripple the frigate Sahad and strike the Sabalon.

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The subsonic bomber designed in the 1950s was now using laser guided weapons against moving naval targets.

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It had come a long way, but its largest post-Vietnam test came during Operation Desert Storm.

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A6s flew thousands of combat sorties and carried a major share of the Navy's precision strike workload.

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However, the opening phases of the war demonstrated that the traditional low-level attack profile had become increasingly dangerous.

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Iraq possessed dense concentrations of anti-aircraft guns and short-range defenses.

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What this meant was that flying beneath long-range radar coverage did not make an aircraft invisible to every weapon below.

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After some early losses, intruder crews increasingly operated from medium altitude,

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using improved sensors and precision weapons rather than relying exclusively on terrain-hugging penetration.

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And what this meant was that the mission had changed, but of course, the ever-adaptable A6 changed right along with it.

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During the campaign against Iraqi naval forces, intruders helped attack patrol boats,

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missile craft and mine layers that were attempting to operate in the northern Persian Gulf.

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The A6 also introduced newer standoff weapons into combat, extending its ability to strike targets without having to directly fly over them.

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What all this adds up to is that by 1991, the intruder was no longer merely an aircraft that could bomb through the clouds,

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Rather, it had become a mature precision strike system with an experienced community behind it.

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And that's what made the next decision so controversial.

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Because at almost the exact moment the A-6 demonstrated how capable it had become, the Navy began preparing to retire it,

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with a replacement that never arrived.

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The intruder had a problem that no targeting system could solve.

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Its airframes were getting old.

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Years of turbulent, low-altitude flight,

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carrier launches, arrested landings, and near-constant exposure to saltwater had placed enormous stress on the wings and fuselage.

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Cracks and fatigue problems led to restrictions and even groundings.

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The Navy responded with a program to replace aging metal wings with newer composite structures.

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Meanwhile, Grumman proposed a much more ambitious solution.

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The A6F Intruder II would combine the basic strengths of the existing aircraft with new engines, modern radar, additional weapon stations,

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improved avionics, and limited air-to-air capability.

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Five development aircraft were built.

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The A6F made the strong case that the intruder's career did not have to end.

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But given the prevailing thought at the time with both the F-117 and B-2 Spirit being introduced, the Navy believed that the future belonged to stealth.

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The intruder's intended replacement was the A-12 Avenger II, a highly ambitious carrier-based flying wing, perhaps inspired by the B-2,

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that was designed to penetrate advanced air defenses.

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The A-12's shape quickly earned the nickname the Flying Dorito.

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This program promised a revolutionary aircraft.

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Instead, it encountered severe problems involving weight, composite construction, cost, schedule, and program management.

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In January 1991, the Department of Defense canceled the A-12 before a flyable prototype had been completed.

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Therefore, the Navy found itself in an uncomfortable position.

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The A6F had lost support as the service was committed to the A12, but now the A12 was gone as well.

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Now looking back, the obvious answer might be to restart the A6F program, but we have to remember at the time, the Cold War was ending,

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defense budgets were shrinking to famously pay the peace dividend, and the existing intruder fleet was already expensive to maintain.

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The Navy at the time increasingly favored multi-role aircraft that could perform fighter and attack missions

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rather than maintaining a separate aircraft for each role.

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As a result, the F-A-18 family absorbed more of the strike mission.

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And even the F-14 community also expanded to precision attack, turning the Tomcat into a capable strike platform during the final decade of its career,

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aka the Bombcat.

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Now, without a doubt, those aircraft could perform many of the intruders' missions, but they could not reproduce the A-6's exact combination of payload,

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range, endurance, and all-weather specializations.

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The Marine Corps retired its remaining intruders in the early 1990s, and the Navy's final carrier deployment ended in 1996.

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The A-6 was formally retired in 1997.

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After more than three decades of service, the aircraft that was built to attack through darkness and bad weather was gone, taken out by a spreadsheet.

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Now make no mistake, the A6 intruder was not perfect.

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As we've mentioned, its early electronics were unreliable, its maintenance demands could be punishing at times.

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It again was subsonic, non-stealthy, and the reality was that as time went on, it became increasingly vulnerable to modern air defenses.

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By the 1990s, the Navy had legitimate reasons to question how much longer it could keep the aircraft in frontline service,

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especially without upgrading to the F version.

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But what ended up happening with the sunset of the Intruder was more than just an airframe retirement.

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It really was the end of a particular philosophy.

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The Intruder was built on the belief that one aircraft did not need to do everything.

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It only needed to do one job exceptionally well.

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And that's why crews to this day continue to miss it.

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Not because it was fast, beautiful, or easy to maintain.

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They miss it because when the weather closed in, the target disappeared, and the mission still had to be completed, the A-6 intruder was usually the aircraft sent to do it.

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So here's the question to you.

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Should the Navy have modernized the intruder and placed the A-6F into production?

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Or were stealth and multi-role aircraft always going to make the dedicated subsonic bomb truck obsolete?

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Let me know what you think in the comments.

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151 предложений

О данном уроке

В этом уроке вы научитесь понимать и воспроизводить разговорный английский на темы военной техники и истории, используя видеоматериал о самолете Grumman A-6 Intruder. Практика будет сосредоточена на воспроизведении речи с естественной скоростью, работе с терминами и улучшении произношения. Вы узнаете, как правильно использовать shadowing для освоения сложных предложений и эмоциональной окраски высказываний.

Ключевой вокабуляр и фразы

Subsonic — субзвуковой (описание скорости самолета)
Bombardier Navigator — бомбардировщик-навигатор (должность в экипаже)
Terrain — рельеф (использование ландшафта для укрытия)
Engagement envelope — зона поражения (область действия ракет)
Payload — полезная нагрузка (количество бомб на борту)

Советы по практике

Для эффективной работы с видео используйте технику shadowspeak: повторяйте фразы сразу после говорящего, стараясь совпадать по скорости и интонации. Видео имеет среднюю скорость речи с элементами эмоционального напряжения (описание боевых действий), поэтому начните с прослушивания коротких отрывков (5–10 секунд), затем постепенно увеличивайте длительность. Фокусируйте внимание на произношении сложных слов, таких как anti-aircraft artillery или radar-directed guns — повторяйте их отдельно, затем в контексте предложения. Для улучшения разговорного английского записывайте себя на аудио и сравнивайте с оригиналом: это поможет заметить отличия в интонации и темпе. Практикуйте ежедневно по 15–20 минут, и вы скоро заметите прогресс в восприятии и воспроизведении речи.

Грамматика в этом видео

Конструкции, которые говорящий использует чаще всего, с точными словами из видео:

Конструкция	В видео
Пассивный залог be + причастие прошедшего времени — важно, что происходит, а не кто это делает	was protected · had been built · was built
Present Perfect have/has + причастие прошедшего времени — прошлое действие, важное сейчас	you've heard · that's been given · we've mentioned

Что такое техника Shadowing?

Shadowing — это научно обоснованная техника изучения языка, изначально разработанная для подготовки профессиональных переводчиков и популяризированная полиглотом доктором Александром Аргуэльесом. Метод прост, но эффективен: вы слушаете аудио на английском от носителей языка и немедленно повторяете вслух — как тень, следующая за говорящим с задержкой в 1–2 секунды. В отличие от пассивного прослушивания или грамматических упражнений, Shadowing заставляет мозг и мышцы рта одновременно обрабатывать и воспроизводить реальные речевые паттерны. Исследования показывают, что это значительно улучшает точность произношения, интонацию, ритм, связную речь, понимание на слух и беглость речи — что делает его одним из самых эффективных методов для подготовки к IELTS Speaking и реального общения на английском.

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Что такое техника Shadowing?