शैडोइंग अभ्यास: Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2 - वीडियो के साथ अंग्रेजी बोलना सीखें
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Can we call pizza cause psychedelic hallucinations?
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Does coffee make you smarter?
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Or does it just make you do dumb stuff faster?
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Like much of psychology itself, questions like these can seem pretty intuitive.
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I mean, people may not be the easiest organisms to understand, but you're a person, right?
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So you must be qualified to draw, like, some conclusions about other people and what makes them tick.
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But it's important to realize that your intuition isn't always right.
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In fact, sometimes it is exactly wrong, and we tend to grossly underestimate the dangers of false intuition.
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If you have some idea about a person and their behavior that turns out to be right, that reinforces your trust in your intuition.
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Like if I warned my buddy
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Bob against eating that deep dish pizza that's been in the fridge for the past week,
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but he eats it anyway and soon starts to wig out, I'm gonna say, dude, I told you so.
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But if I'm wrong, and he's totally fine, I probably won't even think about it ever again.
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This is known as hindsight bias, or the I knew it all along phenomenon.
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This doesn't mean that common sense is wrong,
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it just means that our intuitive sense more easily describes what just happened than what will happen in the future.
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Another reason you can't blindly trust your intuition is your natural tendency toward overconfidence.
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Sometimes you just really, really feel like you're right about people when actually you're really, really wrong.
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We've all been there.
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We also tend to perceive order in random events, which can lead to false assumptions.
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For example, if you flip a coin five times, you have equal chances of getting all tails as you do getting alternating heads and tails.
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But we see the series of five tails as something unusual,
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as a streak, and thus giving that result some kind of meaning that it very definitely does not have.
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That is why we have the methods and safeguards of psychological research and experimentation, and the glorious process of scientific inquiry.
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They help us to get around these problems and basically save the study of our minds from the stupidity of our minds.
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So I hope that it won't be a spoiler if I tell you now that pizza won't make you trip, and coffee doesn't make you smart.
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Sorry.
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In most ways, psychological research is no different than any other scientific discipline.
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Like step one is always figuring out how to ask general questions about your subject and and turn them into measurable, testable propositions.
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This is called operationalizing your questions.
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So you know how the scientific method works.
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It starts with a question and a theory.
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And I don't mean theory in the sense of like a hunch
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that say a quad shot of espresso makes you think better.
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Instead, in science, a theory is what explains and organizes lots of different observations and predicts outcomes.
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And when you come up with a testable prediction, that's your hypothesis.
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Once your theory and hypothesis are in place, you need a clear and common language to report them with.
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So, for example, defining exactly what you mean by thinking better with your espresso hypothesis will allow other researchers to replicate the experiment.
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And replication is key.
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You can watch a person exhibit a certain behavior once, and it won't prove very much.
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But if you keep getting consistent results, even as you change subjects or situations, you're probably on to something.
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This is a problem with one popular type of psychological research, case studies, which to take an in -depth look at one individual.
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Case studies can sometimes be misleading, because by their nature, they can't be replicated, so they run the risk of overgeneralizing.
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Still, they're good at showing us what can happen, and end up framing questions for more extensive and generalizable studies.
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They're also often memorable and a great storytelling device psychologists use to observe and describe behavior.
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Like, say the smell of coffee makes
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Carl suddenly anxious and irritable.
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That obviously doesn't mean that it has that same effect on everyone.
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In fact, Carl has terrible memories associated with that smell, and so his case is actually quite rare.
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Poor Carl.
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But you would still have to look at lots of other cases to determine that conclusively.
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Another popular method of psychological research is naturalistic observation, where researchers simply watch behavior in a natural environment.
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Whether that's chimps poking anthills in the jungle, kids clowning in a classroom, or drunk dudes yelling at soccer games.
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The idea is to let the subjects just do their thing without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
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So yeah, basically just spying on people.
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Like case studies, naturalistic observations are great at describing behavior, but they're very limited in explaining it.
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Psychologists can also collect behavioral data using surveys or interviews, asking people to report their opinions and behaviors.
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Sexuality researcher Alfred Kinsey famously used this technique
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when he surveyed thousands of men and women on their sexual history and published his findings in a pair of revolutionary texts,
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sexual behavior in the human male and female, respectively.
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Surveys are a great way to access people's consciously held attitudes and beliefs, but how to ask the questions can be tricky.
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Subtle word choices can influence results.
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For example, more forceful words like ban or censor may elicit different reactions than limit or not allow.
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Asking do you believe in space aliens is a much different question than do you think
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that there is intelligent life somewhere else in the universe.
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It's the same question, but in the first, the subject might assume that you mean aliens visiting
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Earth and making crop circles and abducting people and poking them.
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And if how you phrase surveys is important, so is who you ask.
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I could ask a room full of students at a pacifist club meeting what they think about arms control,
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but the results wouldn't be a representative measure of where students stand, because there's a pretty clear sampling bias at work here.
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To fairly represent a population, I'd need to get a random sample where all members of the target group,
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in this case students, had an equal chance of being selected to answer the question.
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So, once you've described behavior with surveys, case studies, or naturalistic observation, you can start making sense out of it, and even predict future behavior.
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One way to do that is to look at how one trait or behavior is related to another, or how they correlate.
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So let's get back to my buddy
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Bob, who seems to think that his refrigerator is actually some kind of time machine that can preserve food indefinitely.
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Let's say that
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Bob is just tucked into a lunch of questionable leftovers, pizza that may very well have had a little bit of fungus on it.
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But he was hungry, and lazy, and so he doused it in sriracha.
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Suddenly, he starts seeing things.
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Green armadillos with laser beam eyes.
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From here, we could deduce that eating unknown fungus predicts hallucination.
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That's a correlation.
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But correlation is not causation.
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Yes, it makes sense that eating questionable fungus would cause hallucinations, but it's possible that
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Bob was already on the verge of a psychotic episode, and those fuzzy leftovers were actually benign.
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Or, there could be an entirely different factor involved, like maybe he hadn't slept in 72 hours, or had an intense migraine coming on,
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and one of those factors caused his hallucinations.
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It's tempting to draw conclusions from correlations, but it's super important to remember that correlations predict the possibility of cause and effect relationships.
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They cannot prove them.
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So we've talked about how to describe behavior without manipulating it, and how to make connections and predictions from those findings.
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But that can only take you so far.
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To really get to the bottom of cause and effect behaviors, you're gonna have to start experimenting.
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Experiments allow investigators to isolate different effects by manipulating an independent variable and keeping all other variables constant, or as constant as you can.
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This means that they need at least two groups.
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The experimental group, which is going to get messed with, and the control group, which is not going to get messed with.
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Just as surveys use random samples, experimental researchers need to randomly assign participants to each group to minimize potential confounding variables,
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or outside factors, that may skew the results.
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You don't want all grumpy teenagers in one group and all wealthy Japanese servers in the other.
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They gotta mingle.
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Now, sometimes one or both groups are not informed about what's actually being tested.
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For example, researchers can test how substances affect people by comparing their effects to placebos or inert substances.
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And often, the researchers themselves don't know which group is experimental and which is control, so they don't unintentionally influence the results through their own behavior.
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In which case, it's called, you guessed it, a double -blind procedure.
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So let's put these ideas into practice in our own little experiment.
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Like all good work, it starts with a question.
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So the other day, my friend Bernice and I were debating.
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We're debating caffeine's effect on the brain.
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Personally, she's convinced that coffee helps her focus and think better, but I get all jittery like a caged meerkat and can't focus on anything.
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And because we know that overconfidence can lead you to believe things that are not true, we decided to do some critical thinking.
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So let's figure out our question, do humans solve problems faster when given caffeine?
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Now we gotta boil that down into a testable prediction.
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Remember, keep it clear, simple and eloquent so that it can be replicated.
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Caffeine makes me smarter is not a great hypothesis.
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A better one would be, say, adult humans given caffeine will navigate a maze faster than humans not given caffeine.
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The caffeine dosage is your independent variable, the thing that you can change.
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So you'll need some coffee.
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Your result or dependent variable, the thing that depends on the thing that you can change,
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is going to be the speed at which the subject navigates this giant corn maze.
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Go out on the street, wrangle up a bunch of different kinds of people, and randomly assign them into three different groups.
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Also at this point, the American Psychological Association suggests that you acquire everyone's informed consent to participate.
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You don't want to force anyone to be in your experiment, no matter how cool you think it is.
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So the control group gets a placebo, in this case decaf.
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Experimental group one gets a low dose of caffeine, which we'll define at 100 milligrams, just an eye -opener and like a cup of coffee's worth.
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Experimental group two gets 500 milligrams, more than a quad shot of espresso dunked in a Red Bull.
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Once you dose everyone, turn them loose in the maze and wait at the other end with a stopwatch.
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All that's left is to measure your results from the three different groups
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and compare them to see if there were any conclusive results.
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If the highly dosed folks got through it twice as fast as the low dose or placebo groups,
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then Bernice's hypothesis was correct and she could rub my face in it saying she was right all along. But really,
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that would just be the warm flush of hindsight bias telling her something she didn't really know until we tested it.
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Then, because we've used clear language and defined our parameters, other curious minds can easily replicate this experiment
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and we can eventually pool all the data together
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and have something solid to say about what that macchiato was doing to your cognition.
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Or at least the speed at which you can run through a maze.
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Science.
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Probably the best tool that you have for understanding other people.
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Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Psychology.
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If you paid attention, you learned how to apply the scientific method of psychological research through.. case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys, and interviews, and experimentation.
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You also learned about different kinds of bias in experimentation, and how research practices help us avoid them.
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Thanks especially to our Subbable subscribers who make this and all of Crash Course possible.
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If you'd like to contribute to help us keep
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Crash Course going, and also get awesome perks like an autographed science poster, or even be animated into an upcoming episode,
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go to subbable .com slash crash course to find out how.
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Our script was written by Kathleen Yale and edited by Blake T.
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Pastino and myself.
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Our consultant is Dr. Ranji Bhagwat.
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Our director and editor is Nicholas Jenkins.
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Our script supervisor is Michael Ronda, who is also our sound designer.
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And our graphics team is Thought Cafe.
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इस पाठ की शब्दावली और बोलने के सुझाव
यह स्पीकिंग पाठ वीडियो “Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology” पर आधारित है। इस वीडियो में शैडोइंग के लिए 99 वाक्य और 2143 शब्द हैं। बोला गया हिस्सा 10:40 लंबा है। वक्ता तेज़ बोलता है, लगभग 201 शब्द प्रति मिनट, इसलिए जुड़ी हुई और कमज़ोर ध्वनियाँ ज़्यादा मिलेंगी। केवल 80% शब्द अंग्रेज़ी के 3,000 सबसे आम शब्दों में से हैं, इसलिए शब्दावली कठिन है।
इस वीडियो की मुख्य शब्दावली
वीडियो के 15 सीखने लायक शब्द, उच्चारण और अर्थ के साथ:
| शब्द | उच्चारण | अर्थ |
|---|---|---|
| experiment संज्ञा | /ɪkˈspɛɹ.ə.mənt/ | प्रयोग, तजुर्बा |
| psychological विशेषण | /ˌsaɪ.kəˈlɑː.d͡ʒɪ.kl̩/ | मनोवैज्ञानिक |
| researcher संज्ञा | /ˈɹiˌsɝ.t͡ʃɚ/ | शोधकर्ता, शोधक |
| caffeine संज्ञा | /ˈkæfiːn/ | कैफ़ीन, कैफीन |
| experimental विशेषण | /ɪkspɛɹəˈmɛntəl/ | प्रायोगिक |
| observation संज्ञा | /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/ | अवलोकन, प्रेक्षण |
| hypothesis संज्ञा | /haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/ | परिकल्पना |
| pizza संज्ञा | /ˈpi.tsə/ | पिज़ा, पिज़्ज़ा |
| bias संज्ञा | /ˈbaɪ.əs/ | पक्षपात, पूर्वाग्रह |
| correlation संज्ञा | /ˌkɔɹ.əˈleɪ.ʃən/ | सहसंबंध |
| maze संज्ञा | /ˈmeɪz/ | भूलभुलैया |
| replicate क्रिया | /ˈɹɛplɪkeɪt/ | अनुकृति करना, अनुकरण करना |
| intuition संज्ञा | /ˌɪn.tjuːˈɪʃ.ən/ | सहजबोध |
| tail संज्ञा | /ˈteɪ̯l/ | पूंछ, पूँछ |
| prediction संज्ञा | /pɹɪˈdɪkʃən/ | प्रागुक्ति, भविष्यवाणी |
इस वीडियो का व्याकरण
वक्ता जिन संरचनाओं का सबसे अधिक प्रयोग करता है, वीडियो के असली शब्दों के साथ:
| संरचना | वीडियो में |
|---|---|
| Passive voice be + past participle — ज़ोर इस पर कि क्या होता है, न कि कौन करता है | is known · is called · can't be replicated |
| Present perfect have/has + past participle — बीता हुआ काम जिसका असर अभी भी है | that's been · you've described · have had |
| Relative clauses who / which + उपवाक्य — व्यक्ति या वस्तु के बारे में अतिरिक्त जानकारी | events, which can · group, which is |
ध्यान देने योग्य उच्चारण
वक्ता 42 बार संक्षिप्त रूपों का प्रयोग करता है, जैसे don't, you're, won't। इन्हें वैसे ही छोटा बोलें जैसा आप सुनते हैं।
- “th” की ध्वनियाँ: hypothesis /haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/, wealthy /ˈwɛl.θi/
- “sh” और “zh” की ध्वनियाँ: observation /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/, correlation /ˌkɔɹ.əˈleɪ.ʃən/, intuition /ˌɪn.tjuːˈɪʃ.ən/, prediction /pɹɪˈdɪkʃən/, conclusion /kənˈkluːʒən/
- लंबे शब्द — बलाघात सही रखें: experiment /ɪkˈspɛɹ.ə.mənt/, psychological /ˌsaɪ.kəˈlɑː.d͡ʒɪ.kl̩/, experimental /ɪkspɛɹəˈmɛntəl/, hypothesis /haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/, correlation /ˌkɔɹ.əˈleɪ.ʃən/
हिंदी भाषियों के लिए मुश्किल ध्वनियाँ:
- /v/ और /w/ का फ़र्क़ — /v/ में ऊपर के दाँत निचले होंठ को छूते हैं, /w/ में होंठ गोल होते हैं: observation /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/, variable [ˈvæɹ.i.ə.bl̩], questionable /ˈkwɛst͡ʃənəbl̩/, quad /kwɑd/, intuitive /ɪnˈtjuːɪtɪv/
- /z/ — इसे “ज” (/dʒ/) न बनाएँ: observation /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/, maze /ˈmeɪz/, designer /dɪˈzaɪnɚ/, phrase /ˈfɹeɪ̯z/, lazy /ˈleɪ̯zi(ː)/
- शब्द की शुरुआत में s + व्यंजन — पहले “इ” न जोड़ें: script /skɹɪpt/, spy /spaɪ/, streak /stɹiːk/, stupidity /stuˈpɪdɪti/, spoiler /ˈspɔɪ.lɚ/
इस वीडियो से अभ्यास कैसे करें
- पहले बिना बोले पूरा वीडियो एक बार सुनें और जो शब्द नहीं आते उन्हें लिख लें।
- 0.75× गति से शुरू करें, एक-एक वाक्य की शैडोइंग करें, और सहज लगने पर सामान्य गति पर लौटें।
- अपनी आवाज़ रिकॉर्ड करें और मूल से तुलना करें, ख़ासकर experiment, psychological, researcher जैसे शब्दों पर ध्यान दें।
शैडोइंग तकनीक क्या है?
शैडोइंग (Shadowing) एक विज्ञान-समर्थित भाषा सीखने की तकनीक है जो मूल रूप से पेशेवर दुभाषिया प्रशिक्षण के लिए विकसित की गई थी। विधि सरल लेकिन शक्तिशाली है: आप मूल अंग्रेज़ी ऑडियो सुनते हैं और तुरंत इसे ज़ोर से दोहराते हैं — जैसे वक्ता की छाया 1-2 सेकंड की देरी से। शोध से पता चलता है कि यह उच्चारण सटीकता, स्वर, लय, जुड़ी हुई ध्वनियाँ, सुनने की समझ और बोलने की प्रवाहशीलता में काफ़ी सुधार करता है।