Pratica di Shadowing: We Know More About Time Than You Think - Impara a parlare inglese con i video
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We have learned a lot about the nature of time.
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We've learned about how time elapses at different rates if you're moving or in a different gravitational field.
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We've gained insight into trying to understand why the future is different from the past.
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But the deep questions that continue to puzzle me and many of my colleagues is, what is time?
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Isaac Newton was one of the first people to try to come to grips with the nature of time.
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And he kind of took the easy way out.
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He basically hypothesized that there is this thing called time.
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And he says that it flows equably in equal intervals, regardless of where you are or what you're doing.
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He basically introduced the idea of a grand cosmic clock that relentlessly ticks forward, moment after moment after moment,
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kind of dragging us all forward in time at exactly the same rate,
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squaring his ideas of time with the everyday experience of time.
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Before Isaac Newton, people basically understood time from their own experience.
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We all have agreement on what it means to meet at a certain location at a certain moment in time.
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And so people just took it for granted that there is this quality of the world called time.
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And it is what allows us to impose an order on our experiences, right?
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Time is what allows us to talk about past and present and future.
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And those are useful concepts when we try to make sense of our common experience.
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We find it very useful to divide time into certain intervals, right?
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I mean, the Earth, it spins around one rotation in a day.
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So that's where the notion of breaking time into days comes from.
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The moon, it has certain phases as it goes in orbit around the Earth.
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And that's what gives rise to the notion of the lunar calendar, the month.
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And then, of course, the Earth itself goes around the sun once per year.
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And that gives us our natural definition of what we mean by a year.
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And so we use these natural rhythms in our everyday experience to break time down into natural intervals.
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When Isaac Newton was trying to figure out the basic workings of the universe,
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he recognized that a key idea is that motion is simply an object occupying different locations over different moments in time.
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And so his laws of motion that that he ultimately developed, tried to write down a correlation between where something is and when it is at that location.
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So the great achievement of Isaac Newton was he was able to write down equations that allowed him to predict
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where the planets should be at any given moment.
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And the wonderful thing is, Newton made those predictions using mathematics.
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And then when people looked up into the night sky, the planets, the moon, just at the locations where Newton predicted.
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That is the triumph of Newton's ability to understand how things move through space over the course of time.
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When Newton said that time is absolute, he simply meant that it elapses at the same rate for everyone everywhere.
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According to Einstein, the answer to that question is no, No, it depends on the motion of the object.
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That's only true or approximately true
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if you're not moving really quickly or if you are not in the vicinity of a powerful source of gravitational pull.
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But if you are, according to Einstein, time is not absolute.
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Time is relative.
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When Albert Einstein was about 16 years old, he wondered what would it be like to travel at the speed of light?
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You know, imagine that he gets on his bicycle and he zips along at the same speed as light itself.
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Well, he realized that if he could go at light speed, when he looked over at that beam of light, it would hover right next to him.
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The light itself would appear stationary.
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Now, the problem is when he looked at the mathematics that describes the motion of light, the math does not allow light to be stationary.
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Light can't hold still. And
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so Einstein faced this puzzle of trying to square his expectation
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of how light would look with what the mathematics described in terms of how light itself actually would appear.
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He came up with a simple sounding idea that is one of the most profound insights in the history of our species.
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He put forward the notion that the speed of light is constant, a fixed, absolute, un - changing number.
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This is so different from any other speed of any object in the world, right?
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I mean, if I throw a baseball toward you, right, the speed at
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which you will think the ball is approaching you will depend on whether you're standing still
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or if you're moving away or if you're moving toward the ball.
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You move toward it, the speed will be faster.
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You move away, the speed will be diminished.
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But Einstein said, if I replace the baseball with a laser and I fire the laser toward you, regardless of whether you move toward the laser or away,
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the speed at which it will approach you is one fixed and unchanging number, 299 ,792 ,458 meters per second,
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a fixed, absolute, unchanging speed that is the same regardless of your motion.
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Speed of light, absolute, constant, unchanging.
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The idea that the speed of light is constant is
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so profound because speed is a measure of how far something goes divided by how long it takes it to get there.
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It therefore is a measure of distance, space, divided by duration, time.
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And so if the speed of light is behaving weirdly, that must mean that space and time behave weirdly at very high speeds.
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And this is what intrigued Einstein.
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And this is what drove him to determine the weird, unexpected qualities of space and time that only emerge at very high speeds.
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Einstein did his experiments not in the laboratory with equipment, but rather in his brain.
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He was able to simply think through scenario after scenario,
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allowing him to extract deep insights into the nature of the world.
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And then he was able to put mathematics to describe these thought experiments in quantitative detail, allowing him to write down,
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formulate mathematical equations that describe the new strange properties of space and time.
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He found that space and time themselves cannot be constant, but rather they must change in exactly the right way so that the ratio,
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which is what speed is, is itself constant.
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And so, if you're talking about space and time in the Einsteinian framework,
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they become radically unlike what Newton had in mind.
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For Newton, space and time are absolute.
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For Albert Einstein, space and time are relative.
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According to Albert Einstein, if you and I have two wristwatches and they're completely synchronized, I go off into space in this direction,
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and you and I continue to compare the rate at which time elapses on our wristwatches, we will find that they no longer agree.
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Scientists actually do this.
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They need to use highly precise atomic clocks.
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And this was done back in the 70s.
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Two scientists, they took two atomic clocks, they left one on the tarmac to put the other in a jet, and they flew that jet around the world, took the clock off the plane,
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and compared it to the clock that they left on the tarmac.
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And they showed different amounts of elapsed time.
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And the differences were exactly what the equations of Albert Einstein predicted.
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So there is no longer a universal notion of now once
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Albert Einstein gets through with his reworking of the nature of time.
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In Einstein's general relativity, this is his discovery in 1915,
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he realized that there's another influence that can affect the passage of time.
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He basically found that gravity can be thought of as pulling on time, slowing its passage.
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And so the stronger the gravitational pull you experience, the slower time itself will elapse.
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In fact, if you're near the edge of a black hole,
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the gravitational pull there can be so powerful that a clock seems to freeze at a fixed moment in time.
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Now, these are deep and profound insights, but they do not answer the question that has to do with another quality,
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a common quality of our experience of time, which is that time seems to move toward the future.
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It seems to have an arrow from the past toward the future.
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Where does that arrow of time come from?
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Entropy is a concept in physics that describes the amount of disorder in a physical system.
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Now, what in the world does that mean?
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Let me just give you an example.
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Imagine a child's bedroom that's completely ordered in the morning, but then in the evening,
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that bedroom is a total mess because the child has made use of the toys
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and books and they're all scattered across the room.
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Now, why is it useful to talk about order and disorder?
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Well, that example makes clear.
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It takes much more concerted effort to create an ordered arrangement, and it's very easy to create a disordered arrangement.
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And because of that, left to their own devices, the room tends to go from order toward disorder.
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And we call that going from low entropy to high entropy.
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Everything in the universe tends to go from order toward disorder.
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I mean, we can even do an example.
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If we were to take these two liquids, so we have an orderly collection of coffee molecules, an orderly collection of milk molecules,
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and if we pour the milk into the coffee,
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we get a mixture, a disorderly mixture in which the milk and coffee molecules intermix among each other.
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That's going from lower entropy to higher entropy.
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And that move from order toward disorder, low entropy to high entropy is something that we recognize throughout the cosmos.
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So a deep puzzle in physics is that But
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when we look at the fundamental equations that we use to describe the universe, those equations,
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regardless of whether you're looking at the ones from Newton or from Einstein or from Maxwell's describing the motion of light,
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all of those equations share the property that they don't distinguish between forward in time and backward in time.
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And yet our experiences are anything but agnostic
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when it comes to the direction of time everything we experience seems to point from past toward future.
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How do we explain that?
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Well, one idea is to use this notion of entropy.
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What does it mean to go into the future?
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It means for entropy to increase.
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And so there was a time when physicists thought that that might be the answer.
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Where does the arrow of time come from?
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It comes from the relentless increase in disorder.
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Perhaps that's what distinguishes the future from the past.
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So many things in the world appear to be irreversible, happening in one temporal orientation, right?
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I mean, if I were to take an egg and I smash it on the ground, right, it splattered.
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None of us have ever seen an egg unsplatter.
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Why is that?
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Well, here's the thing.
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It is the case that entropy increased as the egg splattered.
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It went from an ordered oval shape to a disordered mess all over the floor.
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That's the natural progression from order to disorder.
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But from the standpoint of fundamental physics, if I was to get into the molecules making up the shells
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and the yolk and the albumin and everything that splattered when the egg splattered on the floor, if I was to reverse all of those motions,
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then all of those particulate ingredients, they would move toward each other and they would reassemble the egg itself.
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And so even though it appears to be an irreversible motion from egg to splatter, in principle, that splatter can be undone.
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It is, according to the laws of physics, reversible.
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So the hour of time seems like it might be explained by entropy, but that does not quite work.
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Because once you recognize that the laws of physics, the fundamental laws that describe how things change,
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if the laws don't distinguish between forward in time and backward in time, entropy, which relies upon those laws, can't explain it either.
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So where does the argument break down?
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If you start from any moment in time, the second law of thermodynamics says that disorder, entropy should increase toward the future,
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but it should also increase toward the past.
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And that symmetry between past and future is what the laws of physics demand.
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Now, what would that mean?
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Well, let me give you an example.
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Imagine you have a partially melted ice cube sitting on a plate.
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Well, you all know that as you go toward the future, entropy increases, which manifests as the cube becoming ever more melted,
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ultimately turning into a little puddle.
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According to the laws of physics, that same progression should hold when going toward the past,
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which would mean that the partially melted ice cube did not emerge from a yet more solid ice cube, as our intuition and experience suggests,
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but rather that partially melted ice cube should have begun as a small puddle of water
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that then coalesced into that partially melted ice cube.
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And so future and past, according to entropy and the fundamental laws of physics, on completely equal footing, entropy alone,
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therefore, does not give us the arrow of time.
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The best way that we have found to get out of this impasse is to hypothesize that the very early universe, the beginning of the universe,
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must have been a highly ordered...
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configuration, and we have been living through the degradation of that order ever since.
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And so we hypothesize
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that the beginning of the universe is what anchors the arrow of time by anchoring entropy at a very low value,
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by anchoring the universe in a highly ordered configuration.
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What that would mean is when I drop an egg and it splatters on the floor,
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The fact that the ordered egg exists at all is a reflection of conditions at the Big Bang itself.
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If the Big Bang wasn't highly ordered, we would never have ordered objects in the world around us.
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We would never have ordered eggs that could splatter.
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And so the arrow of time is anchored.
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It finds its beginning in the beginning of time itself.
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So that raises the question, why was the Big Bang so ordered?
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Answer, I have no idea.
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Nobody on planet Earth has any idea either.
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We have ideas that we have thrown around,
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but there is no consensus on what may have imposed this high degree of order on the Big Bang itself.
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We have learned an enormous amount about time, both from relativity and from thermodynamics.
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But if you were to ask me what actually is time, I still don't really know how to fully answer.
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Time is a quality of the universe that allows for change.
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And we notice that time has elapsed by noticing that things have changed.
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But is that quality of time a fundamental feature of the universe?
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Or is it something that we humans impose on the external world in order to organize our perceptions of reality?
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These are questions that are deeply controversial.
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And even today, we are not convinced that time itself is a fundamental quality of reality.
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Most theories of physics that we take seriously simply assume the existence of space and the existence of time.
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But recently, as we have been examining equations of certain ideas coming out of unified theories and string theory,
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we're beginning to see the glimpse of a realm of reality where time itself has yet to appear,
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a kind of timeless realm that may be a more fundamental starting point for understanding how the world exists.
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There was a period in physics where we simply took for granted
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that time was a fundamental ingredient in any description of reality.
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My intuition about where our understanding will go is, I think, in the future,
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we're going to have a new formulation of fundamental physics in which time itself does not appear.
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And instead, we will find that time only emerges in certain environments,
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certain contexts in which time itself becomes relevant.
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So rather than time being something we impose from the outside into our equations, my suspicion is that in the future,
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time will emerge from a more basic starting point, that time itself will be an emerging quality of reality.
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Vocabolario e note di pronuncia per questa lezione
Questo video contiene 197 frasi e 2776 parole da ripetere con lo shadowing. Il parlato dura 18:20. Chi parla ha un ritmo naturale di circa 151 parole al minuto, vicino a una conversazione quotidiana. Il 83% delle parole rientra nelle 3.000 più comuni dell’inglese; conviene studiare le altre prima di iniziare.
Vocaboli chiave di questo video
15 parole del video che vale la pena imparare, con pronuncia e significato:
| Parola | Pronuncia | Significato |
|---|---|---|
| physics sostantivo | /ˈfɪz.ɪks/ | fisica |
| disorder sostantivo | /dɪsˈɔɹdɚ/ | disordine |
| fundamental aggettivo | /ˌfʌn.dəˈmɛn.təl/ | fondamentale |
| equation sostantivo | /ɪˈkweɪ.ʒən/ | equazione |
| clock sostantivo | /klɑk/ | contachilometri, tachimetro |
| arrow sostantivo | /ˈæɹəʊ/ | freccia |
| cube sostantivo | /kjub/ | cubo |
| notion sostantivo | /ˈnoʊʃən/ | nozione, concetto |
| mathematics sostantivo | /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/ | matematica |
| melt verbo | /mɛlt/ | sciogliere, fondere |
| emerge verbo | /ɪˈmɝd͡ʒ/ | emergere, venire fuori |
| regardless avverbio | /ɹɪˈɡɑɹd.lɪs/ | comunque, in ogni caso |
| insight sostantivo | /ˈɪnsaɪ̯t/ | introspezione, approfondimento |
| partially avverbio | /ˈpɑɹʃəli/ | parzialmente |
| anchor sostantivo | /ˈæŋ.kəː/ | ancora, àncora |
I phrasal verb che sentirai
| Parola | Pronuncia | Significato |
|---|---|---|
| write down verbo | sottoscrivere, annotare | |
| come up with verbo | ideare, escogitare | |
| figure out verbo | scoprire, rendersi conto | |
| make up verbo | /ˌmeɪk ˈʌp/ | comporsi |
| put forward verbo | proporre, presentare |
Pronuncia a cui fare attenzione
Chi parla usa 21 contrazioni e forme ridotte, come you're, don't, can't. Pronunciale nella forma breve, così come le senti.
- I suoni “th”: mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, rhythm /ˈɹɪð.əm/, mathematical /ˌmæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪ.kəl/, hypothesize /haɪˈpɑ.θəˌsaɪz/, thermodynamics /ˌθɜː(ɹ)moʊdaɪˈnæmɪks/
- I suoni “sh” e “zh”: equation /ɪˈkweɪ.ʒən/, notion /ˈnoʊʃən/, partially /ˈpɑɹʃəli/, distinguish /dɪˈstɪŋ.ɡwɪʃ/, configuration /kənˌfɪɡ.əˈɹeɪ̯.ʃən/
- Parole lunghe — attenzione all’accento: fundamental /ˌfʌn.dəˈmɛn.təl/, mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, experiment /ɪkˈspɛɹ.ə.mənt/, configuration /kənˌfɪɡ.əˈɹeɪ̯.ʃən/, ingredient /ɪnˈɡɹiːdi.ənt/
Come esercitarsi con questo video
- Ascolta tutto il video una volta senza parlare e annota le parole che non conosci.
- Inizia a velocità 0,75×, fai shadowing frase per frase e torna alla velocità normale quando diventa facile.
- Registrati e confronta con l’originale, facendo attenzione a parole come physics, disorder, fundamental.
La grammatica di questo video
Le strutture che chi parla usa di più, con le parole esatte del video:
| Struttura | Nel video |
|---|---|
| Present perfect continuous have/has been + -ing — un’azione iniziata prima e ancora in corso | have been living · have been examining |
| Present perfect have/has + participio passato — un’azione passata che conta ancora adesso | have learned · We've learned · We've gained |
| Forma passiva be + participio passato — conta ciò che accade, non chi lo fa | will be diminished · can be thought · can be undone |
Cos'è la tecnica dello Shadowing?
Shadowing è una tecnica di apprendimento delle lingue supportata da studi scientifici, originariamente sviluppata per la formazione dei traduttori professionisti e resa popolare dal poliglotta Dr. Alexander Arguelles. Il metodo è semplice ma potente: ascolti un audio in inglese di madrelingua e lo ripeti immediatamente ad alta voce — come un'ombra che segue il parlante con un ritardo di solo 1–2 secondi. A differenza dell'ascolto passivo o degli esercizi di grammatica, lo shadowing costringe il tuo cervello e i muscoli della bocca a elaborare e riprodurre simultaneamente i modelli di discorso reale. La ricerca dimostra che migliora significativamente la precisione della pronuncia, l'intonazione, il ritmo, il discorso connesso, la comprensione dell'ascolto e la fluidità del parlato — rendendolo uno dei metodi più efficaci per la preparazione alla prova di speaking dell'IELTS e per la comunicazione reale in inglese.