Pratique du Shadowing: 3 game theory tactics, explained - Apprendre l'anglais à l'oral avec la vidéo
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Any time that you're interacting with another person who has their own interests and is trying to achieve their own ends, they are trying to do the best they can, given what they want.
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You're trying to do the best you can, given what you want.
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And so you're interacting in a strategic situation.
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Game theory is a mathematical theory that attempts to make sense of how it is that people interact in these strategic situations.
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John von Neumann wrote a very important book called The Theory of Games with a guy named Oscar Morgenstern.
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And in there he laid out game theory.
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Game theory is the study of decision making under conditions of uncertainty over time.
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It was originally developed in economics in order to try and understand economic behavior, like why people buy certain things or why they're willing to work for certain wages.
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But later on it was expanded and applied to a variety of different situations including biology,
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international relations, and even interpersonal relations like friendship and parenting and family relations.
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One of the things that game theory has really shown us through recent study has been interactions
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that we oftentimes think as zero-sum or competitive are not as competitive as they seem.
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In situations like in the Cold War, which most people thought, that's got to be a zero-sum game if anything is,
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we discovered that actually there were opportunities for mutual cooperation.
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Arms reduction treaties are a great example.
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The U.S and the USSR figured out that if they could find a way to cooperate, they could both save an enormous amount of money and effort by reducing the number of weapons that they have.
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Reagan and Gorbachev negotiated the START treaty with one another.
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And one of the big problems that they had is, how can you be sure that while you're eliminating nuclear weapons, your adversary is also eliminating nuclear weapons?
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So rather than saying, we're just going to get rid of some large percentage of our nuclear weapons
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and hope that the USSR would do so as well, they broke up the interaction into a bunch of little tiny ones.
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So the USSR would eliminate just a few nuclear weapons, then the US would eliminate just a few nuclear weapons.
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They would check, and then they would go on to the next stage.
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And then each would eliminate a few more, and they'd go on to the next stage.
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This process of taking a big interaction
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and breaking it down into little small parts can change a bad social dilemma into a positive interaction.
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What I do in my personal life, and I think almost everyone can do in their personal life, is to try and think, in this interaction, what outcome would be good for both parties?
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And how can we achieve that outcome?
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And by thinking about everything in that way, we oftentimes transform something that seems like a situation where there has to be a winner
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and there has to be a loser into one where nobody feels like they've lost and everybody benefits.
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JOHN VAN NORMANN based game theory on a stripped-down version of poker.
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In any given poker situation, you're dealing with a lot of uncertainty
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and it's all about how to make the best decision in any given moment and that's so integral to life.
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Everything we try to do, you know, should we take this route or that route, should I go here on vacation or there, it's all about dealing with uncertainties and probabilities of things happening
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and poker is a very fun and easy way to teach someone how to do that.
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First rule of thumb is how to extract the most money
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or chips from your opponent when you have a strong hand
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and how to lose the minimum when you have a weak hand.
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You're never going to be 100% certain where you are, are you beating them or do you have a worse hand.
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So you have to sort of construct a strategy that is mathematically optimal in each situation.
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The most damaging bias that can come up in poker, and I also think very often in life, is the sunk cost fallacy.
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Where you'll have a lot of chips, perhaps almost all of your stack is in the middle,
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and yet you are 85 to 90 percent confident that you have the worst hand.
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Putting another chip in the pot is probably not a good idea, but we'll often go to ourselves, Ah, well, I've gone this far, I've put this much in, I might as well see it through to the end.
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But if you have very strong information that actually from this point onwards, putting more money in the pot is a bad idea, then you shouldn't.
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But we have this belief that, well, I've put this much time in or this much effort, that we should continue on.
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That can be very, very costly.
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Once you start paying attention to the sunk cost fallacy, once it's on your radar, you'll probably notice at least a few things that you wish you were doing differently.
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Those might be small scale.
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In my case, I'm now much more willing to abandon a book
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that I've realized I'm not enjoying and not getting any value out of,
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rather than trudging dutifully through the remainder of the book just because I've already come 100 pages.
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These changes might also be large scale.
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For example, I was in a PhD program and at a certain point
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realized with increasing certainty that I wasn't happy in this field and would probably be better off switching.
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And that the only reason
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that I had stuck with it as long as I had was
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because of my fear of confronting the sunk cost of four to five years
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that I'd spent preparing for and working in the PhD.
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And sometimes it really does take time to fully acknowledge to yourself
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that you don't have any good reason to stick with the job
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or PhD or project that you've been working on so long because sunk costs are painful.
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But at least having the sunk cost fallacy on your radar means
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that you have the opportunity at least to push past that
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and make the choice that instead will lead to the better outcomes for your future.
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Game theory spent much of its early days analyzing zero-sum games where one party is going to win
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and the other party is going to lose and trying to figure out what's the best strategy.
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What game theorists have figured out is
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that in zero-sum games the best strategy to pursue
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when you're against a sophisticated opponent is to adopt the strategy which minimizes your maximum loss.
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This is sometimes called the mini-max strategy.
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So the idea is you think, what's the worst case scenario for me?
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What could my opponent do that would make me worse off?
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And then you figure out what's the best strategy against that.
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So you're minimizing your maximum loss.
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Game theorists prove that if you use this way of thinking, minimizing your maximum loss, you ensure that no matter how sophisticated your opponent is,
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you've guarded against the worst case scenario.
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And not only that, but in zero-sum games, you've done the best you can possibly do.
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Get smarter, faster, with videos from the world's biggest thinkers.
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Vocabulaire et conseils d’expression pour cette leçon
Cette leçon d’expression orale de niveau C1 s’appuie sur la vidéo « 3 game theory tactics, explained ». Les mots qui reviennent le plus souvent : theory, situation, strategy, weapons, sunk. Cette vidéo contient 79 phrases et 1255 mots à répéter en shadowing. La partie parlée dure 7:10. Le locuteur parle à un rythme naturel d’environ 175 mots par minute, proche d’une conversation courante. 85 % des mots font partie des 3 000 mots les plus courants en anglais ; le reste mérite d’être vu avant de commencer.
Vocabulaire clé de cette vidéo
Les 15 mots les plus avancés de la vidéo, avec leur prononciation et leur sens :
| Mot | Prononciation | Sens |
|---|---|---|
| poker nom | /ˈpoʊkɚ/ | tisonnier |
| fallacy nom | /ˈfæl.ə.si/ | tromperie |
| minimize verbe | /ˈmɪn.ɪˌmaɪz/ | minimiser |
| uncertainty nom | /ʌnˈsɜːtənti/ | incertitude |
| interact verbe | /ɪn.təˈɹækt/ | interagir |
| oftentimes adverbe | /ˈɔf.ənˌtaɪmz/ | souventesfois, souventefois |
| theorist nom | /ˈθiːəɹəst/ | théoricien, théoricienne |
| thinker nom | /ˈθɪŋ.kɚ/ | penseur, penseuse |
| sophisticated adjectif | cosmopolite | |
| adversary nom | /ˈæd.vəɹˌsɛɹi/ | adversaire, ennemi |
| dutifully adverbe | attentivement, consciencieusement | |
| interpersonal adjectif | interpersonnel | |
| mathematically adverbe | mathématiquement | |
| onward adverbe | /ˈɒnwəd/ | en avant |
| trudge verbe | /tɹʌd͡ʒ/ | crapahuter |
Les verbes à particule que vous entendrez
| Mot | Sens |
|---|---|
| figure out verbe | cerner |
| break up verbe | rompre, couper |
La grammaire de cette vidéo
Les structures que le locuteur utilise le plus, avec les mots exacts de la vidéo :
| Structure | Dans la vidéo |
|---|---|
| Present perfect have/has + participe passé — une action passée qui compte encore maintenant | has really shown · they've lost · I've gone |
| Voix passive be + participe passé — l’accent est mis sur ce qui arrive, pas sur qui le fait | was expanded · is sometimes called |
Prononciation à surveiller
Le locuteur utilise 29 contractions et formes réduites, comme you're, I've, you've. Prononcez-les sous leur forme courte, telles que vous les entendez.
- Les sons « th »: theorist /ˈθiːəɹəst/, thinker /ˈθɪŋ.kɚ/, thumb /ˈθʌm/, mathematical /ˌmæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪ.kəl/
- Mots longs — placez bien l’accent: uncertainty /ʌnˈsɜːtənti/, adversary /ˈæd.vəɹˌsɛɹi/, cooperate /kəʊˈɒp.ə.ɹeɪt/, negotiate /nəˈɡəʊ.ʃi.eɪt/, probability /ˌpɹɑ.bəˈbɪl.ə.ti/
Les sons difficiles pour les francophones :
- /r/ anglais — langue recourbée, sans frotter la gorge: interact /ɪn.təˈɹækt/, theorist /ˈθiːəɹəst/, adversary /ˈæd.vəɹˌsɛɹi/, trudge /tɹʌd͡ʒ/, cooperate /kəʊˈɒp.ə.ɹeɪt/
Comment s’entraîner avec cette vidéo
- Écoutez la vidéo en entier une fois sans parler et notez les mots que vous ne connaissez pas.
- Commencez à la vitesse 0,75×, répétez phrase par phrase, puis revenez à la vitesse normale quand cela devient facile.
- Enregistrez-vous et comparez avec l’original, en faisant attention à des mots comme poker, fallacy, minimize.
Qu'est-ce que la technique du Shadowing ?
Le Shadowing est une technique d'apprentissage des langues fondée sur la science, développée à l'origine pour la formation des interprètes professionnels. Le principe est simple mais puissant : vous écoutez de l'anglais natif et le répétez immédiatement à voix haute — comme une ombre suivant le locuteur avec un décalage de 1 à 2 secondes. Les recherches montrent une amélioration significative de la précision de la prononciation, de l'intonation, du rythme, des liaisons, de la compréhension orale et de la fluidité.