शैडोइंग अभ्यास: Core Knowledge (Stanford Psych 60) - वीडियो के साथ अंग्रेजी बोलना सीखें
अभ्यास मोड चुनें
हर मोड पूरी स्क्रीन का अभ्यास कक्ष खोलता है।
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Hi, my name is Kara Wiseman.
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I'm a PhD student in developmental psychology at Stanford.
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I study social cognitive development, focusing on how young children and adults think about concepts like consciousness, sentience, and personhood.
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Today, I'm going to be talking to you about a very influential idea in developmental psychology, that babies are born with what researchers call core knowledge.
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Some researchers think that infants mostly rely on all -purpose mechanisms for learning about the world.
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These mechanisms are domain general, meaning that they can be applied to everything from learning about the physical world,
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to understanding numbers, to figuring out social relationships.
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Other researchers think that infants are born with more domain -specific ways of making sense of their experiences.
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They think that infants are born with a handful of distinct cognitive systems for reasoning about different parts of the world.
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This perspective is called the theory of core knowledge.
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On this theory, the human mind contains a few, maybe five or six, core knowledge systems,
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and each one is responsible for dealing with just a small chunk of the world.
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Here's one well -studied example of a core knowledge system, the core object system.
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The core object system supports reasoning about objects, like rocks or strawberries or basketballs, and the laws of physics that govern them.
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This system, like other core knowledge systems, is characterized by a handful of key principles, specific pieces of knowledge that guide reasoning in this domain.
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In the core object system, one of these key principles is the principle of cohesion.
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Objects should hold together across time and space, rather than disintegrating.
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Objects should also obey the principle of continuity, that is, they should move along continuous paths through time and space,
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rather than appearing and disappearing at random.
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Finally, there's the principle of contact.
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Objects should only start to move when something else touches them, and not without being touched.
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The reason these three key principles, cohesion, continuity, and contact,
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are said to characterize the core object system is
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because studies have shown that infants expect objects to behave according to these principles and are surprised when objects violate them.
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Another important part of the core object system and other core knowledge systems is that it is characterized by signature limits,
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situations in which the system falls apart.
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Studies with both young infants and adults have demonstrated
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that the core object system can keep track of about three to four of these objects at a time, but not more.
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And it doesn't do well with things like piles of sand, liquids, or other substances, which violate the key principle of cohesion.
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This can lead to some pretty funny experimental findings, like young infants seeming not to notice when a single pile of sand goes behind a curtain,
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and then have somehow turned into two separate piles of sand when the curtain is raised.
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So far, research indicates that there are about five or six of these core knowledge systems,
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each of which has its own set of key principles and signature limits.
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The core object system is one of the best studied, but there is also extensive research on a core number system,
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supporting reasoning about quantity and keeping track of how many things there are in some context.
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A core agent system, supporting reasoning about creatures that act autonomously to pursue their goals,
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a core place system, supporting navigation around an environment, and a core system for shape or form, supporting representation of the shapes of objects.
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Recently, some researchers have also speculated about a core knowledge system for social partners, supporting reasoning about social interactions and relationships.
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This is still an active area of research.
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Core knowledge theorists argue that these core systems are innate, present at birth rather than learned over time,
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and that the systems are shared across many species, rather than being unique to humans.
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Researchers have converged on these conclusions from a few different angles.
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Many researchers conduct studies with humans of different ages, including research with newborn infants, with older infants as they gain more experience and skills,
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with toddlers as they become fluent speakers of their language.
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with school children, as they are explicitly instructed in arithmetic, geometry, manners, and other subjects, and with adults.
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Another research approach has been to compare performance across species, including not only humans, but also non -human primates,
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newly hatched chicks, zebrafish, and even ants.
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Finally, researchers sometimes compare performance across different cultural contexts that vary in the languages people use, the everyday environments that people experience,
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and the values and beliefs that people hold.
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For example, lots of research has compared people living in highly industrialized urban centers like
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San Francisco or Beijing to people living in isolated indigenous communities in rural Papua New Guinea or the Amazonian rainforest.
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Across many of these studies, participants of different ages, species,
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and cultural contexts have all shown similar sensitivities to the key principles and signature limits of each of the core knowledge systems,
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leading some researchers to argue that these systems are likely to be innate and species general.
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Other researchers disagree.
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It's important to note that the theory of core knowledge does not claim to explain all of human cognition.
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Core knowledge theorists would not claim
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that there are an infinite number of core knowledge systems for all the different chunks of the world
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we might reason about or interact with, or that there are core knowledge systems for things like computers or astrophysics,
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which have no plausible role in evolutionary history.
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Instead, researchers in this tradition view the small handful of core knowledge systems as fundamental building blocks that, over the course of learning and development,
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combine to help us reason about more and more complex concepts like computers, astrophysics, and minds.
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For more on the topic of core knowledge, check out these papers.
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Thank you.
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इस पाठ की शब्दावली और बोलने के सुझाव
यह स्पीकिंग पाठ वीडियो “Core Knowledge” पर आधारित है। सबसे ज़्यादा दोहराए गए शब्द ये हैं: core, knowledge, object, principle, researchers। इस वीडियो में शैडोइंग के लिए 35 वाक्य और 982 शब्द हैं। बोला गया हिस्सा 7:02 लंबा है। वक्ता लगभग 140 शब्द प्रति मिनट की स्थिर गति से बोलता है, जो शैडोइंग के लिए आरामदायक है। केवल 79% शब्द अंग्रेज़ी के 3,000 सबसे आम शब्दों में से हैं, इसलिए शब्दावली कठिन है।
इस वीडियो की मुख्य शब्दावली
वीडियो के 15 सीखने लायक शब्द, उच्चारण और अर्थ के साथ:
| शब्द | उच्चारण | अर्थ |
|---|---|---|
| principle संज्ञा | /ˈpɹɪn.sɪ.pəl/ | जड़सूत्र, असूल |
| researcher संज्ञा | /ˈɹiˌsɝ.t͡ʃɚ/ | शोधकर्ता, शोधक |
| compare क्रिया | /kəmˈpɛɚ/ | तौलना |
| sand संज्ञा | /sænd/ | रेत, बालू |
| signature संज्ञा | /ˈsɪɡ.nə.t͡ʃə/ | हस्ताक्षर, दस्तख़त |
| psychology संज्ञा | /saɪˈkɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/ | मनोविज्ञान, मानसशास्त्र |
| mechanism संज्ञा | /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/ | तंत्र, यंत्रावली |
| curtain संज्ञा | /ˈkɜɹt(ə)n/ | पर्दा |
| continuity संज्ञा | /ˌkɑn.tɪˈn(j)u.ə.ti/ | निरंतरता |
| topic संज्ञा | /ˈtɑpɪk/ | प्रसंग, विषय |
| everyday विशेषण | /ˈɛvɹiˌdeɪ/ | दैनिक, रोज़ाना |
| belief संज्ञा | /bɪˈliːf/ | विश्वास, धारणा |
| skill संज्ञा | /skɪl/ | कुशलता, कौशल |
| conclusion संज्ञा | /kənˈkluːʒən/ | अंतिम |
| liquid संज्ञा | /ˈlɪk.wɪd/ | द्रव, तरल |
इस वीडियो का व्याकरण
वक्ता जिन संरचनाओं का सबसे अधिक प्रयोग करता है, वीडियो के असली शब्दों के साथ:
| संरचना | वीडियो में |
|---|---|
| Passive voice be + past participle — ज़ोर इस पर कि क्या होता है, न कि कौन करता है | are born · can be applied · is called |
| Present perfect have/has + past participle — बीता हुआ काम जिसका असर अभी भी है | have shown · have demonstrated · have also speculated |
ध्यान देने योग्य उच्चारण
वक्ता 3 बार संक्षिप्त रूपों का प्रयोग करता है, जैसे I'm, doesn't। इन्हें वैसे ही छोटा बोलें जैसा आप सुनते हैं।
- “th” की ध्वनियाँ: theorist /ˈθiːəɹəst/, arithmetic /æɹɪθˈmɛtɪk/
- “sh” और “zh” की ध्वनियाँ: conclusion /kənˈkluːʒən/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, interaction /ˌɪn.təˈɹæk.ʃən/, consciousness /ˈkɑnʃəsnəs/, influential /ɪnflʊˈɛnʃəl/
- लंबे शब्द — बलाघात सही रखें: psychology /saɪˈkɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/, mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, developmental /dɪˌvɛləpˈmɛntəl/, continuity /ˌkɑn.tɪˈn(j)u.ə.ti/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/
हिंदी भाषियों के लिए मुश्किल ध्वनियाँ:
- /v/ और /w/ का फ़र्क़ — /v/ में ऊपर के दाँत निचले होंठ को छूते हैं, /w/ में होंठ गोल होते हैं: cognitive /ˈkɑɡ.nɪ.tɪv/, developmental /dɪˌvɛləpˈmɛntəl/, violate /ˈvaɪəˌleɪt/, everyday /ˈɛvɹiˌdeɪ/, liquid /ˈlɪk.wɪd/
- /z/ — इसे “ज” (/dʒ/) न बनाएँ: mechanism /ˈmɛk.ə.nɪ.zəm/, physics /ˈfɪz.ɪks/, representation /ˌɹɛp.ɹə.zɛnˈteɪ.ʃən/, plausible /ˈplɑ.zɪ.bəl/, characterize /ˈkɛɹəktəɹaɪz/
- शब्द की शुरुआत में s + व्यंजन — पहले “इ” न जोड़ें: skill /skɪl/, strawberry /ˈstɹɔˌbɛɹi/, speculate /ˈspɛk.jʊˌleɪt/
इस वीडियो से अभ्यास कैसे करें
- पहले बिना बोले पूरा वीडियो एक बार सुनें और जो शब्द नहीं आते उन्हें लिख लें।
- सामान्य गति पर एक-एक वाक्य की शैडोइंग करें और हर वाक्य तब तक दोहराएँ जब तक आपकी लय वक्ता से न मिल जाए।
- अपनी आवाज़ रिकॉर्ड करें और मूल से तुलना करें, ख़ासकर principle, researcher, compare जैसे शब्दों पर ध्यान दें।
शैडोइंग तकनीक क्या है?
शैडोइंग (Shadowing) एक विज्ञान-समर्थित भाषा सीखने की तकनीक है जो मूल रूप से पेशेवर दुभाषिया प्रशिक्षण के लिए विकसित की गई थी। विधि सरल लेकिन शक्तिशाली है: आप मूल अंग्रेज़ी ऑडियो सुनते हैं और तुरंत इसे ज़ोर से दोहराते हैं — जैसे वक्ता की छाया 1-2 सेकंड की देरी से। शोध से पता चलता है कि यह उच्चारण सटीकता, स्वर, लय, जुड़ी हुई ध्वनियाँ, सुनने की समझ और बोलने की प्रवाहशीलता में काफ़ी सुधार करता है।