シャドーイング練習: 10 things you should know about black holes - 動画で英語スピーキングを学ぶ
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134 文
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When I first learned about black holes, I was scared that one would fly through our solar system and eat us all up.
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That was 30 years ago.
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I'm not afraid of black holes anymore, but I am afraid that they have been misunderstood.
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So here are 10 things that you should know about black holes.
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First things first, what is a black hole?
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A black hole contains a region from which nothing can ever escape,
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because to escape you would have to move faster than the speed of light, which you can't.
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The boundary of the region from which you cannot escape is called the horizon.
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In the simplest case, the horizon has the form of a sphere.
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Its radius is known as the Schwarzschild radius, named after Karl Schwarzschild, who first derived black holes as a solution to Einstein's general relativity.
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How large are black holes?
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The diameter of a black hole is directly proportional to the mass of the black hole.
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So the more mass falls into the black hole, the larger the black hole becomes.
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Compared to other stellar objects though, black holes are tiny because enormous gravitational pressure has compressed their mass into a very small volume.
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For example, the radius of a black hole with the mass of planet
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Earth is only a few millimeters.
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What happens at the horizon?
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A black hole horizon does not have substance.
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Therefore, someone crossing the black hole horizon does not notice anything weird going on in their immediate surroundings.
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This follows from Einstein's equivalence principle, which implies that in your immediate surrounding you cannot tell the difference between acceleration in flat space
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and curved space that gives rise to gravity.
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However, an observer far away from a black hole who watches somebody fall in would notice
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that the infalling person seems to move slower and slower the closer they get to the horizon.
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It appears this way because time close by the black hole horizon runs much slower than far away from the horizon.
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That's one of these odd consequences of the relativity of time that Einstein discovered.
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So, if you fall into a black hole, it only takes a finite amount of time to cross the horizon,
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but from the outside it looks like it takes forever.
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What you would experience at the horizon depends on the tidal force of the gravitational field.
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The tidal force is, loosely speaking, the change of the gravitational force.
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It's not the gravitational force itself, it's the difference between the gravitational forces at two nearby places, say at your head and at your feet.
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The tidal force at the horizon is inversely proportional to the square of the mass of the black hole.
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This means the larger and more mass of the black hole, the smaller the tidal force at the horizon.
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Yes, you heard that right.
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The larger the black hole, the smaller the tidal force at the horizon.
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Therefore, if the black hole is only massive enough, you can cross the horizon without noticing what just happened.
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And once you have crossed the horizon, there is no turning back.
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The stretching from the tidal force will become increasingly unpleasant as you approach the center of the black hole.
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Eventually it will rip everything apart.
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In the early days of general relativity, many physicists believed that there is a singularity at the horizon,
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but this turned out to be a mathematical mistake.
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What is inside a black hole?
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Nobody really knows.
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General relativity predicts that inside the black hole is a singularity, that's a place where the tidal forces become infinitely large.
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But we know that general relativity does not work nearby the singularity, because there the quantum fluctuations of space and time become very large.
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To be able to tell what is inside a black hole, we would need a theory of quantum gravity.
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And we don't have one.
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Most physicists believe that such a theory, if we had it, would replace the singularity with something else.
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How do black holes form?
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We presently know of four different ways that black holes may form.
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The best understood one is stellar collapse.
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A sufficiently large star will form a black hole after its nuclear fusion runs dry,
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which happens when the star has fused everything that could be fused.
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Now, when the pressure generated by the fusion stops, the matter starts falling towards its own gravitational center,
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and thereby it becomes increasingly dense.
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Eventually the matter is so dense that nothing can overcome the gravitational pull on the surface of the star.
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That's when a black hole has been created.
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These black holes are called solar mass black holes, and they are the most common ones.
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The next common type of black holes are the supermassive black holes that can be found in the centers of many galaxies.
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Supermassive black holes have masses about a billion times that of solar mass black holes, and sometimes even more.
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Exactly how they form is still not entirely clear.
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Many astrophysicists think that supermassive black holes start out as solar mass black holes, and, because they sit in densely populated galactic centers,
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they swallow a lot of other stars and grow.
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However, it seems that the black holes grow faster than this simple idea suggests
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and exactly how they manage to do that is not well understood.
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A more controversial idea are primordial black holes.
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These are black holes that might have formed in the early universe by large density fluctuations in the plasma.
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So, they would have been there all along.
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Primordial black holes can in principle have any mass.
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While this is possible, it is difficult to find a model that produces primordial black holes without producing too many of them,
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which is in conflict with observation.
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Finally, there is the very speculative idea that tiny black holes could form in particle colliders.
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This can only happen if our universe has additional dimensions of space, insofar there has not been any observational evidence that this might be the case.
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How do we know black holes exist?
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We have a lot of observational evidence that speaks for very compact objects with large masses that do not emit light.
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These objects reveal themselves by their gravitational pull.
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They do this, for example, by influencing the motion of other stars or gas clouds around them, which we have observed.
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We furthermore know that these objects do not have a surface.
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We know this
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because matter falling onto an object with a surface would cause
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more emission of particles than matter falling through a horizon and then just vanishing.
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And since most recently, we have the observation from the Event Horizon Telescope, world, which is an image of the black hole shadow.
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This is basically an extreme gravitational lensing event.
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All these observations are compatible with the explanation that they are caused by black holes, and no similarly good alternative explanation exists.
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Why did Hawking once say that black holes don't exist?
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Hawking was using a very strict mathematical definition of black holes, and one that is rather uncommon among physicists.
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If the inside of the black hole horizon remains disconnected forever, we speak of an event horizon.
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If the inside is only disconnected temporarily, we speak of an apparent horizon.
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But since an apparent horizon could be present for a very long time, like billions of billions of years,
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the two types of horizons cannot be told apart by observation.
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Therefore, physicists normally refer to both cases as black holes.
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The more mathematically inclined people, however, count only the first case with an eternal event horizon as black hole.
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What Hawking meant is that black holes may not have an eternal event horizon, but only a temporary, apparent horizon.
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This is not a controversial position to hold, and one that is shared by many people in the field, including me.
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For all practical purposes though, the distinction that Hawking drew is irrelevant.
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How can black holes emit radiation?
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Black holes can emit radiation
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because the dynamical space -time of the collapsing black hole changes the notion of what a particle is.
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This is another example of the relativity in Einstein's theory.
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Just like time passes differently for different observers depending on where they are and how they move.
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The notion of particles, too, depends on the observer and on where they are and how they move.
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Because of this, an observer who falls into a black hole thinks that he is falling in vacuum.
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But an observer far away from the black hole thinks that it is not vacuum but full of particles.
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And where do the particles come from?
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They come from the black hole.
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This radiation that black holes emit is called Hawking radiation, because Hawking was the first to derive that this should happen.
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The radiation has a temperature which is inversely proportional to the black hole's mass.
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So, the smaller the black hole, the hotter it is.
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For the stellar and supermassive black holes that we know of,
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the temperature is well below the temperature of the cosmic microwave background and cannot be observed.
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What is the information loss paradox?
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The information loss paradox is caused by the emission of Hawking radiation.
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This happens because Hawking radiation is purely thermal, which means it is random, except for having a specific temperature.
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In particular, the radiation does not contain any information about what formed the black hole.
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But while the black hole emits radiation, it loses mass and shrinks.
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So, eventually the black hole will be entirely gone,
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and all you are left with is this random radiation which depends only on the initial mass of the black hole.
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It does not at all depend on the details of the matter that formed the black hole or whatever fell in later.
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Therefore, if one only knows the final state of the evaporation, one cannot tell what formed the black hole.
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Such a process is called irreversible, and the trouble is that there are no such processes in quantum theory.
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Black hole evaporation radiation therefore is inconsistent with quantum theory as we know it, and something has to give.
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Somehow this inconsistency has to be removed.
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Most physicists believe that the solution is that the Hawking radiation somehow must contain information after all.
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So will a black hole come and eat us all up?
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It's not impossible, but very unlikely.
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Most Most stellar objects in galaxies orbit around the galactic center because of the way that galaxies form.
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It happens on occasion that two solar systems collide and a star
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or planet or black hole is kicked onto a strange orbit,
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leaves one solar system, and travels around until it gets caught up in the gravitational field of some other system.
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But the stellar objects in galaxies are generally far apart from each other,
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and we sit in an outer arm of a spiral galaxy where there isn't all that much going on.
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So, it's exceedingly improbable that a black hole would come by on just exactly the right path to cause us trouble.
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We would also know of this long in advance, because we would see the gravitational pull of the black hole acting on the outer planets.
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If you have any questions about black holes that this video did not answer, please leave me a comment.
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And don't forget to subscribe.
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このレッスンの語彙とスピーキングのポイント
このスピーキングレッスンは、動画「10 things you should know about black holes」を教材にしています。 繰り返し出てくる語は次のとおりです：hole, horizon, radiation, mass, gravitational。 この動画には、シャドーイング用の文が31文、単語が1878語あります。 音声の長さは12:13です。 話す速さは1分あたり約154語で、日常会話に近い自然なペースです。 英語の頻出3,000語に含まれる単語は80%だけなので、語彙は難しめです。 全31文のうち11文が疑問文なので、疑問文のイントネーションや短い受け答えの練習に向いています。
この動画の重要語彙
動画に出てくる覚えておきたい単語15語を、発音と意味つきで紹介します。
| 単語 | 発音 | 意味 |
|---|---|---|
| horizon 名詞 | /həˈɹaɪ.zən/ | 地平線, 水平線 |
| radiation 名詞 | /ˌɹeɪ.diˈeɪ.ʃən/ | 放射, 輻射 |
| tidal 形容詞 | /ˈtaɪ.d(ə)l/ | 潮 |
| particle 名詞 | /ˈpɑɹtək(ə)l/ | 粒子 |
| galaxy 名詞 | /ˈɡæl.ək.si/ | 銀河, 銀河系 |
| depend 動詞 | /dɪˈpɛnd/ | 依存する |
| observer 名詞 | /əbˈzɝvɚ/ | 観測者 |
| observation 名詞 | /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/ | 観察 |
| quantum 名詞 | /ˈkwɑntəm/ | 量 |
| apparent 形容詞 | /əˈpæɹənt/ | 目に見える, 瞭然の |
| radius 名詞 | /ˈɹeɪ.di.əs/ | 橈骨 |
| explanation 名詞 | /ˌɛkspləˈneɪʃən/ | 説明 |
| principle 名詞 | /ˈpɹɪn.sɪ.pəl/ | 原理, 原則 |
| controversial 形容詞 | /ˌkɑn.tɹəˈvɝ.ʃəl/ | 論争の的の |
| collapse 動詞 | /kəˈlæps/ | 潰える, 崩壊する |
この動画の文法
話し手がよく使っている文型を、動画の実際の表現とともに紹介します。
| 文型 | 動画での表現 |
|---|---|
| 受動態 be + 過去分詞 — 誰がするかより、何が起きるかに焦点を当てる | have been misunderstood · is called · is known |
| 現在完了形 have/has + 過去分詞 — 過去の出来事が今も関係している | have been misunderstood · has compressed · have crossed |
| 関係詞節 who / which + 節 — 人や物について情報を加える | world, which is · temperature which is · thermal, which means |
注意したい発音
話し手はdon't, can't, I'mなど、短縮形や弱形を6回使っています。聞こえたとおりの短い形で発音しましょう。
- 「th」の音: mathematical /ˌmæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪ.kəl/, furthermore /ˈfɜː(ɹ).ðə(ɹ)ˌmɔː(ɹ)/, thermal /ˈθɜːməl/, thereby /ðɛɹˈbaɪ/
- 「sh」と「zh」の音: radiation /ˌɹeɪ.diˈeɪ.ʃən/, observation /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/, explanation /ˌɛkspləˈneɪʃən/, controversial /ˌkɑn.tɹəˈvɝ.ʃəl/, notion /ˈnoʊʃən/
- 長い単語（アクセントの位置に注意）: radiation /ˌɹeɪ.diˈeɪ.ʃən/, explanation /ˌɛkspləˈneɪʃən/, controversial /ˌkɑn.tɹəˈvɝ.ʃəl/, mathematical /ˌmæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪ.kəl/, temporary /ˈtɛmp(əˌɹ)ɛɹi/
日本語話者が苦手な音：
- /r/ と /l/ の区別 — /l/ は舌先を歯茎につけ、/r/ はどこにもつけない: particle /ˈpɑɹtək(ə)l/, stellar /ˈstɛl.əɹ/, principle /ˈpɹɪn.sɪ.pəl/, controversial /ˌkɑn.tɹəˈvɝ.ʃəl/, practical /ˈpɹæk.tɪ.kəl/
- /v/ — /b/ にならないように、上の歯を下唇に当てる: observer /əbˈzɝvɚ/, observation /ˌɑbzɚˈveɪʃn̩/, controversial /ˌkɑn.tɹəˈvɝ.ʃəl/, gravity /ˈɡɹævɪti/, curve /kɚv/
- /f/ — 「フ」ではなく、上の歯と下唇で出す: fusion /ˈfjuː.ʒən/, fuse /fjuːz/, refer /ɹɪˈfɜː/, differently /ˈdɪf.ə.ɹənt.li/, furthermore /ˈfɜː(ɹ).ðə(ɹ)ˌmɔː(ɹ)/
この動画での練習方法
- まず声を出さずに動画を最後まで聞き、知らない単語をメモします。
- まず0.75倍速で一文ずつシャドーイングし、慣れてきたら通常の速度に戻します。
- 自分の声を録音して元の音声と比べます。horizon, radiation, tidalなどの単語に特に注意しましょう。
シャドーイングとは？英語上達に効果的な理由
シャドーイング（Shadowing）は、もともとプロの通訳者養成プログラムで開発された言語学習法で、多言語習得者として知られるDr. Alexander Arguelles によって広く普及されました。方法はシンプルですが非常に効果的：ネイティブスピーカーの英語を聞きながら、1〜2秒の遅延で声に出してすぐに繰り返す——まるで「影（shadow）」のように話者を追いかけます。文法ドリルや受動的なリスニングと異なり、シャドーイングは脳と口の筋肉が同時にリアルタイムで英語を処理・再現することを強制します。研究により、発音精度、抑揚、リズム、連音、リスニング力、そして会話の流暢さが大幅に向上することが確認されています。IELTSスピーキング対策や自然な英語コミュニケーションを目指す方に特におすすめです。