Практика Shadowing: BIOLOGY explained in 17 Minutes - Изучайте разговорный английский по видео

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Hi, you're on a rock, floating in space.

Have you ever wondered how we got here?

Well, about 4 .5 billion years ago, the Earth was a big ball of flame and rocks, constantly bombarded by even more rocks from space.

Fun fact, those rocks probably had some water inside them which has now turned into steam.

Breaking news, the Earth is cooling down.

Oh yeah, did I mention that?

Whoops, everything's flooded.

But hey, at least there's some cool stuff at the bottom like hydrothermal vents

which are piping hot and filled with a bunch of chemicals that can make some very interesting stuff.

Wait a minute, what the heck is going on here?

Biology is the study of life, but really, it's just chemistry in disguise.

I mean, you and I are basically just a big ball of molecules that can make funny sounds.

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are some of the molecules that are fundamental to life.

Carbohydrates give you quick energy, lipids store long -term energy and make membranes, proteins make up tissues, and nucleic acids make DNA.

Also, to make all the chemical reactions possible, living beings have inside of them a bunch of enzymes.

They're special proteins that act as catalysts, which just means they help chemical reactions speed up by either breaking down or combining one specific thing.

For example, lactase breaks down lactose, the sugar found in milk.

Okay, so enzymes make life possible by speeding up chemical reactions, but what even is life?

Scientists don't really seem to agree, but obviously a cat is different from a rock.

The cat can produce energy by metabolizing food, it can grow and develop, reproduce, and it responds to the environment, whereas the rock does not.

Also, unlike rocks, every living thing on earth is made of cells, of which there's two main categories, eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes have fancy organelles which are bound by membranes, like the nucleus inside of which is DNA.

Prokaryotes have none of those organelles, and the DNA is just kinda chilling there, like freely floating around.

This is why prokaryotes are just single -cell organisms like bacteria and archaea, whereas eukaryotes can form complex organisms like protists, fungi, plants, and animals.

These are what's known as kingdoms, which is a taxonomic rank, so basically how we classify different living things and how they're related to one another.

Because there are quite a few species of life on this planet, and naming them cat, dangerous cat,

and water cat wouldn't really be all that helpful,

we also give every species a unique and unambiguous scientific name consisting of the genus and the species.

One thing every species has in common is homeostasis, aka keeping certain conditions in check so

So you don't die.

If you feel warm, your body will sweat.

If you're cold, your body will shiver.

A cell does kind of the same thing, just that it balances out concentrations of certain chemicals.

You see, enzymes for example only work in a very specific environment, let's say some specific pH value.

If this changes too much, the enzymes will denature and won't work anymore.

To counter this, the cell needs to constantly keep up this specific pH value, which is controlled by the concentration of acid and base molecules.

Okay.

But like, how does the cell do that? that.

The secret lies in the cell membrane.

You see, it's a semi -permeable phospholipid bilayer - okay, that's way too many words,

but all it is is two layers of these funky looking molecules with a polar head and a nonpolar tail.

This allows small molecules like water and oxygen to slip right through, whereas larger particles like ions need special channels that can be opened or closed,

which gives the cell control of what goes in and out.

Naturally, particles move with the gradient, so from a place of high concentration to a place of low concentration.

Or, in the case of water, it can also move to a place of high solute concentration, so for example, salt.

Welcome to Biology Pro Tips Season 1, tip of the day, do not drink too much salt water.

There's a bunch of salt in salt water, in fact, more salt than inside of a cell,

which means it will draw water from your cells and dehydrate you.

Yeah, that's it, have a great day.

Anyway, the process of balancing out gradients is known as diffusion and happens automatically, but by using a little bit of energy,

particles can actively be moved against the gradient.

The energy comes from adenosine triphosphate or ATP.

To be exact, the highly energetic chemical bonds between the phosphate groups can be broken to obtain energy.

This is kind of important, as in, every organism and every cell needs to make ATP.

For example, through cellular respiration, which happens in the mitochondria.

Together with oxygen, glucose, so sugar, is turned into water, carbon dioxide, and ATP.

This is nice, but it only works if you already have glucose.

Humans are heterotrophs, they eat food, inside of which is sugar, which is then broken down into glucose.

Plants on the other hand are autotrophs.

Simply put, they said, screw food, I'll just make my own glucose by staring at the sun.

You see, plant cells have small organelles called chloroplasts, inside of which is chlorophyll, which absorbs red and blue light but reflects green light,

which is why most plants look green.

The absorbed energy from light is used to split water

and make a special form of carbon dioxide which can then be turned into glucose and oxygen.

Okay, quick recap, once you have glucose, either from food or photosynthesis, you can do cellular respiration to get energy in the form of ATP.

Chemically, ATP is what's known as a nucleotide.

It has a phosphate group, a 5 -carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

You know what else is made of nucleotides?

deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

It consists of two strands of nucleotides with the sugar and phosphate groups, but the actually important part is the nitrogenous base,

which comes in four flavors, adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

These bases can form base pairs through hydrogen bonds, where adenine goes with thymine and cytosine goes with guanine.

These bonds are what holds the two strands of DNA together.

Okay, that's cool, I guess, but like, how the heck does that store genetic information.

I'm glad you asked.

A gene is a section of this DNA that codes for a special trait by carrying a certain sequence of base pairs,

which is like a recipe for making a protein.

Why proteins?

Because they're like, really important.

They transport molecules, act as enzymes, and determine the way you look.

For example, the difference between brown

and blue eyes is the amount of a pigment called melanin in the cells of the iris.

The OCA2 gene codes for P protein, which we believe controls the amount of melanin in cells,

meaning that the proteins made from this gene could be what determines your eye color.

Pretty cool!

There's just one issue.

Your DNA and its information is in the nucleus, but proteins are made in organelles called the ribosomes.

How do we get the information from A to B?

The answer is RNA.

It's kind of like DNA, just that it's most often a single strand, it uses ribose instead of deoxyribose, and instead of thymine it uses uracil,

which makes it less stable.

But that's besides the point.

Here's what RNA actually does.

Let's say you want to make the protein coded for by this gene gene.

An enzyme called RNA polymerase will split the DNA and make a strand of RNA with a complementary basis,

essentially copying the information from the DNA to the RNA.

This is called transcription.

The new strand is called messenger RNA or mRNA because it carries this message out of the nucleus to a ribosome.

Remember how I said that a gene is like a recipe for a protein?

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Well, on the mRNA, which carries the same base sequence as that gene, every group of three bases, which is called a codon,

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codes for a specific amino acid, which are the building blocks for proteins.

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These amino acids are carried by special molecules called transfer RNA

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or tRNA which have a unique anticodon that can only attach to its matching codon on the mRNA.

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The job of the ribosome is to read over codons on the mRNA

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and attach the matching tRNA molecules which then leave behind their amino acid.

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As the ribosome moves along the mRNA and attaches more tRNA, which happens a couple thousand times, the amino acids combine into a polypeptide chain

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which is just a really long chain of amino acids that can be bunched up, creased, smacked, and folded into a protein.

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Okay, let's recap.

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A gene is copied onto mRNA, which is then used to build proteins by assembling a chain of amino acids, aka transcription and translation.

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Welcome to Biology Pro Tips Season 2!

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If you want to decode a sequence of RNA, there is actually a chart for that.

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Yeah, that's all.

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Have a great day.

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Oh yeah, did I mention that you have like a bunch of DNA? you have about 20 ,000 protein -coding genes,

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each thousands to millions of bases long, and that only makes up around 1 % of your entire DNA.

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The rest is just non -coding.

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Plus, almost every cell in your body contains your entire genetic code, but certain genes can be turned on and off depending on the cell,

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which is good, because otherwise your brain cells might just start making stomach acid, which would not be good.

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Fun fact, if you were to stretch out the DNA of just one single cell, it would be about two meters long.

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Wait a minute, how does that fit into a microscopic cell?

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Well, if you were to look inside the nucleus, you wouldn't find the DNA just floating around like this, or even this.

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No, you would actually find lots of these worm -looking things.

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To be exact, DNA is coiled up around proteins called histones

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which are then condensed into strands of chromatin

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which are then coiled up even more to make tightly packed units of DNA called chromosomes .

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Different sections on a chromosome carry different genes, and the entire human genome is split amongst 23 different chromosomes,

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although every body cell has two copies of every chromosome, one from the mother and one from the father.

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For most chromosomes, the two copies are said to be homologous, meaning that they carry the same genes in the same locations.

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However, the two versions of a gene can be different,

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so the mother's gene could code for brown eyes while the father's gene codes for blue eyes.

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These different versions of a gene are called alleles.

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For most of your genes, you have two alleles, one on each chromosome from either parent.

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These alleles can be dominant or recessive, which determines which of them is expressed.

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For example, brown eye color is a dominant trait, which is shown by an uppercase B,

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whereas blue is recessive, which is shown by a lowercase b.

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All this means is that if you have the dominant brown allele, you will have brown eyes, no matter what the second allele is.

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Only when there are two recessive alleles will it be expressed.

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With this knowledge, we can predict the future.

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Let's look at how this trait is inherited from parents to children.

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Both of these parents have brown eyes, but also have a recessive blue allele in their genotype it.

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Every child receives one allele from each parent randomly, so these are the possible combinations for the children.

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Most combinations contain the dominant brown allele, so the child will have brown eyes.

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But there is a small chance that a child gets two recessive alleles and has blue eyes, even though both parents had brown eyes.

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You see, it's what's on the inside that counts.

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Alright, that's cool, but reality is not always so simple.

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Some genes are not fully dominant, but not fully recessive either, which means that the phenotype, so the appearance, appears to mix.

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Crossing a red and a white snapdragon, where red is dominant and white is recessive, gives you a pink phenotype,

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which is somewhere in between, aka intermediate inheritance.

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Or crossing a brown and a white cow, where both colors are dominant, could give you a spotted cow,

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so both phenotypes are expressed equally, aka codominance.

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Hey, remember how I said that almost all chromosomes are homologous?

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Well, there's one exception, the sex chromosomes.

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Females have two big X chromosomes, whereas males have one X and one smaller Y chromosome.

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These are partially homologous at the top, but since the Y chromosome is so small,

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it's missing genes that are present on the lower part of the X chromosome.

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These genes are called X -link genes.

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If one of these genes is a recessive trait like colorblindness, males are stuck with that trait,

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whereas females probably have another dominant allele to override it.

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This is why most colorblind people are male.

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Now for genes to even be passed on, the body has to make new cells which can inherit the genes.

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There's two main mechanisms, mitosis, which is how the body makes identical copies of body cells to grow and repair tissues,

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and meiosis, which is how the body makes gametes, so sperm and egg cells.

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Mitosis starts with a diploid cell, so a cell with two sets of chromosomes.

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These chromosomes consist of one chromatid, which has to be replicated for the new cell.

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After replication is when you see the familiar X shape consisting of two identical sister chromatids.

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These are split into two identical diploid cells with two sets of chromosomes consisting of one chromatid.

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Meiosis also starts with a diploid cell, but after replication the chromosomes co -mingle and exchange genetic information in a process called crossing over.

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The cells then split into two non -identical haploid cells.

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These have one set of chromosomes, but they still consist of two sister chromatids.

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These cells split again into four genetically different haploid cells, where each chromosome has one chromatid.

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Meiosis produces haploid cells so that when two gametes combine into a fertilized egg or zygote, it again has the correct number of chromosomes.

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This is cool, but cell division is only a tiny part of a cell's entire life cycle.

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Most of its time is actually spent in interphase, aka just chilling.

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All it does here is grow and replicate all of its DNA

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so that it actually has enough genetic material and size to divide in emphase.

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There's multiple checkpoints in the cell cycle which are controlled by proteins like p53

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or cyclin to check if the cell is healthy and ready to reproduce.

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If a cell is not quite right, it's either fixed or it destroys itself, which is called apoptosis.

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Or at least, that's what it should do.

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Normal cells replicate until there's no need to, but some cells just keep going.

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This is because they don't respond correctly to these checkpoints and end up replicating out of control and functioning wrong, which is also known as cancer.

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This damaging behavior is often the result of a gene mutation, which is a change somewhere in the base sequence of a gene.

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This can happen during DNA replication when a single base is changed, left out, or inserted into the original sequence.

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This often changes the protein coded for by that gene, and let's just say that change is often not optimal.

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Another type of mutation happens in chromosomes, where entire sections of a chromosome could be duplicated, deleted, flipped around, or transferred between chromosomes.

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The most famous chromosomal mutation is probably

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when the 21st pair of chromosomes has an additional copy so that there's three instead of two.

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The result?

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Down syndrome.

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Mutations might seem like a bad thing, but actually, they can also be neutral or even beneficial.

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For example, a species of yellow grasshoppers might mutate and become green, which makes them blend in with the grass and get eaten less.

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Over time, you can expect to see more and more green grasshoppers as their fitness has increased.

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Not that kind of fitness, fitness as in they can have more offspring because they get eaten less.

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This is natural selection and the driving factor behind evolution, as the poorly adapted species gets selected against and the fittest species,

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which has adapted to the environment, survives and has the most offspring, passing down the trait that made them survive.

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But sometimes, random species get lucky and survive big extinction events or maybe find new land with no competition.

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They're gonna survive even if their genes are actually, like, kind of bad.

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This is called genetic drift.

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If you think adaptation is cool, yeah, but it also kind of sucks.

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You see, humans can get sick from bacteria or viruses, but nowadays we have medicine that works.

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Good.

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However, what if the bacteria mutates and suddenly the medicine doesn't work anymore?

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Well, that's kind of exactly what's happening and we have no clue how to fix it. So, yeah.

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Oh yeah, by the way, one thing many people confuse is bacteria and viruses and no, they're not the same.

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Bacteria are prokaryotes.

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They consist of a single cell which can reproduce on its own, and we treat bacterial infections such as strep throat and tetanus with antibiotics.

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Viruses are not made of cells.

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In fact, we're not even sure they're alive.

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They share some signs of life, but they can only reproduce inside a host.

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They don't grow, so it's not really alive, but it's not dead either.

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It's more like a non -living kind of thing.

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Also, you cannot treat viral infections with antibiotics.

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Most of the time, you just have to chill out and let your immune system do its thing.

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Now you might think bacteria are a bad thing, but actually you have millions of good bacteria inside your gut.

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They live in symbiosis with you, you give them food and they help you digest it.

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Speaking of digestion, your body is made of many complex organ systems that work together to make sure you don't die.

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And I know what you're thinking.

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Actually I don't, but I know how you're thinking.

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The nervous system, consisting of nerves which connect to the spinal cord and lead to your brain,

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is made of cells called neurons which can conduct electricity along this long tube called the axon.

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Anything you see, think and feel, it's all just electrical signals going to your brain and your brain telling your body how to respond.

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To be exact, the signals are called action potentials and happen at the same strength and the same speed every time, so the only difference between,

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Hey, I'm a little cold, and Oh my god, I'm on fire! is where it happens and how frequent the signals are.

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When a neuron is just chilling, the axon is more negative on the inside than on the outside, because there's an unbalanced amount of ions.

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This causes an electric potential of about negative 70 millivolts.

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When there is a stimulus, signaling molecules called neurotransmitters dock onto ion channels on the axon and open them,

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letting ions flow and changing the electric potential around that area.

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Now, action potentials are all or nothing.

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A small stimulus won't really do anything, but if the potential exceeds about negative 55 millivolts, the neuron gets excited.

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Ion channels around the stimulus open and ions rush into the cell.

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This causes the charge distribution in that section of the axon to reverse for a split second, which is called depolarization.

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Ion channels that are next to this area are influenced by this and open as well,

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which causes a chain reaction that sends the signal all the way down the axon.

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Some neurons Neurons have a myelin sheath made of Schwann cells, which insulate the axon and only leave tiny gaps called nodes of Ranvier.

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If there's a stimulus, the charges can jump across the nodes, which transmits the signal way faster than a normal neuron.

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But either way, at the bottom, the electric signal reaches a terminal button, which connects the current neuron to the dendrites of the next.

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If you were to zoom in, you'd notice that the two cells don't even touch, there's actually a small gap.

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This is once again where neurotransmitters come in.

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Once the button is depolarized, tiny packages of neurotransmitters get released and bind your receptors of the following dendrite,

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either blocking it from doing anything or causing another action potential which repeats the cycle.

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Hmm, something in my brain's telling me that you should definitely subscribe,

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and also if you want to stimulate your neurons and find out how math and differential equations are used in biology,

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a resource I can't recommend enough is Brilliant, which has thousands of interactive lessons for everything from basic math to advanced data analysis and programming.

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They use a hands -on approach so that instead of memorizing formulas for hours on end, you actually understand and remember what you're even learning.

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Not only that, but they have plenty of real -life applications that you can immediately apply the knowledge to,

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building your problem -solving skills along the way.

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For example, their Scientific Thinking course lets you interact with scientific principles and theories, from simple machines like

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Gears and the physics behind playing snooker, all the way to Einstein's special theory of relativity.

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Sounds cool if you ask me.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY explained in 19 Minutes

Daily ConversationUniversity Students

FOR YOU

Лексика и советы по произношению к этому уроку

Этот урок разговорной практики построен на видео «BIOLOGY explained in 17 Minutes». Чаще всего повторяются слова: cell, gene, chromosome, Dna, protein. В этом видео 253 предложений и 3668 слов для шедоуинга. Речь длится 17:28. Говорящий говорит быстро, около 210 слов в минуту, поэтому звуки часто сливаются и сокращаются. Только 77% слов входят в 3000 самых частых слов английского языка, поэтому лексика сложная.

Ключевая лексика этого видео

15 слов из видео, которые стоит выучить, с произношением и значением:

Слово	Произношение	Значение
gene существительное	/d͡ʒiːn/	ген
acid существительное	/ˈæsɪd/	кислота́, кисля́тина
molecule существительное	/ˈmɑ.lɪ.kjul/	моле́кула
dominant прилагательное	/ˈdɑmənənt/	преоблада́ющий, госпо́дствующий
consist существительное	/kənˈsɪst/	соста́в
whereas	/(h)wɛɹˈæz/	тогда́ как, в то вре́мя как
glucose существительное	/ˈɡluː.kəʊz/	глюко́за
trait существительное	/tɹeɪt/	черта́, осо́бенность
strand существительное	/ˈstɹænd/	жи́ла, нить
sequence существительное	/ˈsiː.kwəns/	после́довательность, ряд
genetic прилагательное	/d͡ʒəˈnɛt.ɪk/	генети́ческий
enzyme существительное	/ˈɛn.zaɪm/	ферме́нт, энзи́м
concentration существительное	/ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/	концентра́ция
biology существительное	/baɪˈɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/	биоло́гия
identical прилагательное	/ɪˈdɛntɪkl̩/	иденти́чный, одина́ковый

Фразовые глаголы, которые вы услышите

Слово	Произношение	Значение
break down глагол		ломаться, сломаться
make up глагол	/ˌmeɪk ˈʌp/	составля́ть, соста́вить
speed up глагол	/spiːdˈʌp/	ускоря́ться, уско́риться
cool down глагол	/kuːl ˈdaʊn/	остыва́ть, осты́ть
end up глагол		зака́нчиваться, зако́нчиться
find out глагол		узнава́ть, узна́ть
get off глагол		спуска́ться, спусти́ться
keep up глагол		сохранять, поддерживать

Фразы, которые стоит повторять

Короткие законченные фразы из видео, которые пригодятся в повседневном разговоре:

Hi, you're on a rock, floating in space.
Have you ever wondered how we got here?
If you're cold, your body will shiver.
You know what else is made of nucleotides?
You see, it's what's on the inside that counts.

Грамматика в этом видео

Конструкции, которые говорящий использует чаще всего, с точными словами из видео:

Конструкция	В видео
Условные предложения if + предложение, will/would + глагол — условие и его результат	If you feel warm, your body will sweat · If you're cold, your body will shiver · If you were to zoom in, you'd notice
Пассивный залог be + причастие прошедшего времени — важно, что происходит, а не кто это делает	is made · are bound · is controlled
Придаточные определительные who / which + предложение — уточнение о человеке или предмете	them which has · organelles which are · kingdoms, which is
Present Perfect have/has + причастие прошедшего времени — прошлое действие, важное сейчас	Have you ever wondered · has now turned · has increased

Произношение, на которое стоит обратить внимание

Говорящий использует 33 сокращённых и редуцированных форм, например don't, they're, you're. Произносите их коротко, так, как слышите.

Звуки «th»: mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, throat /ˈθɹoʊt/, thymine /ˈθaɪmiːn/
Звуки «sh» и «zh»: concentration /ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/, mutation /mjuˈteɪʃən/, infection /ɪnˈfɛkʃən/, tissue /ˈtɪʃ.(j)u/, combinations /kɑmbɪˈneɪʃənz/
Длинные слова — следите за ударением: concentration /ˌkɑn.sənˈtɹeɪ.ʃən/, biology /baɪˈɑ.lə.d͡ʒi/, mathematics /mæθ(.ə)ˈmæt.ɪks/, combinations /kɑmbɪˈneɪʃənz/, organism /ˈɔɹ.ɡəˌnɪz.əm/

Звуки, трудные для русскоязычных:

/w/ — губы округлены, это не /v/: whereas /(h)wɛɹˈæz/, sequence /ˈsiː.kwəns/, equally /ˈiːkwəli/, frequent /ˈfɹiː.kwənt/, sweat /swɛt/
/h/ — лёгкий выдох, а не русское «х»: whereas /(h)wɛɹˈæz/, heck /hɛk/, helpful /ˈhɛlp.fl̩/, haploid /ˈhæplɔɪd/, homologous /həˈmɒləɡəs/
Звонкие согласные в конце слова — не оглушайте их: acid /ˈæsɪd/, whereas /(h)wɛɹˈæz/, glucose /ˈɡluː.kəʊz/, strand /ˈstɹænd/, node /noʊd/

Как заниматься с этим видео

Прослушайте всё видео один раз молча и выпишите незнакомые слова.
Начните со скорости 0,75×, повторяйте предложение за предложением и вернитесь к обычной скорости, когда станет легко.
Запишите себя и сравните с оригиналом, обращая внимание на такие слова, как gene, acid, molecule.

Что такое техника Shadowing?

Shadowing — это научно обоснованная техника изучения языка, изначально разработанная для подготовки профессиональных переводчиков и популяризированная полиглотом доктором Александром Аргуэльесом. Метод прост, но эффективен: вы слушаете аудио на английском от носителей языка и немедленно повторяете вслух — как тень, следующая за говорящим с задержкой в 1–2 секунды. В отличие от пассивного прослушивания или грамматических упражнений, Shadowing заставляет мозг и мышцы рта одновременно обрабатывать и воспроизводить реальные речевые паттерны. Исследования показывают, что это значительно улучшает точность произношения, интонацию, ритм, связную речь, понимание на слух и беглость речи — что делает его одним из самых эффективных методов для подготовки к IELTS Speaking и реального общения на английском.

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Практика Shadowing: BIOLOGY explained in 17 Minutes - Изучайте разговорный английский по видео

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